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KEY TO NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS. 


PRINTED AT 
THE SALEM PRESS, 
Corner of Liberty and Derby Streets, Salem, Mass., 
F. W. PUTNAM & CO., PROPRIETORS. — 
; October, 1872. 


NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS 


_ CONTAINING A CONCISE ACCOUNT OF EVERY SPECIES OF 


LIVING AND FOSSIL BIRD 


_AT PRESENT KNOWN FROM THE CONTINENT NORTH OF THE MEXICAN 
AND UNITED STATES BOUNDARY. 


ILLUSTRATED BY 6 STEEL PLATES, AND UPWARDS OF 250 WOODCUTS. 


| IBY 
ELLIOTT COUES, 


ASSISTANT SURGEON UNITED STATES ARMY. 


SALEM: NATURALISTS’ AGENCY. 
NEW YORK: DODD AND MEAD. 
BOSTON: ESTES AND LAURIAT. 


1872. 


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Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 
F. W. PUTNAM AND ELLIOTT COUES, ~ 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at | in 


PREFACE. 


A PREFACE is indispensable in this instance, simply because I have no other 
opportunity of properly acknowledging the assistance I have received in preparing 
this work. I am particularly indebted to Mr. J. A. Atiten, of Cambridge, Mass., 
who has diligently revised nearly all the proofsheets, and whose critical suggestions 
have proved invaluable. Mr. Roserr Ripaway, of Illinois, has given me the 
benefit of his still unpublished studies of the Raptores and some other groups, 
besides rendering, as Mr. ALveN also has, various essential services. 

Prof. Bairp kindly offered me the use of all the illustrations of his late 
Review, while Prof. Acasstz generously placed at my disposal the plates 
accompanying Mr. Atiten’s Memoir on the Birds of Florida. Several of the 
woodcuts have been taken from Prof. Tenney’s Manual of Zoology, with the 
author’s permission; and a few others have been contributed by Messrs. Ler 
and Suprparp. With a few exceptions, the rest of the illustrations have been 
drawn from nature by the author, and engraved by Mr. C. A. Waker. 

I have spoken elsewhere of Prof. Marsu’s almost indispensable coéperation 
‘in one part of the work. 

While material for the greater part of the descriptions has been furnished by 
the author’s private cabinet, the Synopsis could hardly have been prepared without 
that free access to the collection of the Smithsonian Institution, of which I 
have been permitted to avail myself. 

The only word of explanation that seems to be required is with regard to the 
large number of genera I have admitted. I have been led into this—unnecessarily, 
perhaps, and certainly against my judgment—partly by my desire to disturb a 
current nomenclature as little as possible, and partly because it is still uncertain 
what value should be attached to a generic name. Among wading and swimming 
birds—the groups of which are, on the whole, more precisely limited than those of 
Insessores—I have, however, indicated what I consider to be a reasonable reduc- 
tion; and on another occasion I should probably extend a like practice, if not one 
even more ‘conservative,” to the remaining groups. I will only add, that I 
consider that several of the admitted families of Oscines will require to be merged 
in one. These are the Turdide, Saxicolide and Sylviide, if not also the Troglo- 
dytide and Motacillide ; while the same may prove true of the current Sylvicoline, 
Tanagrine and Fringilline groups. 

E. C. 

Wasuineton, D. C., September 9th, 1872 


ay 5:2. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 
INTRODUCTION. 1 
Src. I. OrnitHwoLoGy Drrinep — Birps DEFINED — Brizr DEscrieTION OF THEIR 
PECULIAR COVERING. 1 
Src. II. AN ALLUSION TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF Birps — Taxonomy — SrTrRuc- 
TURE — CHARACTERS — GROUPS OF DmrrERENT GRADES — TYPES AND ABER- 
RATIONS — EQUIVALENCY — ANALOGY AND AFFINITY — EXAMPLE. ff 
Src. III. DeErrmiIrioN AND BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE EXTERIOR OF A Birp. — 
Parts anpD OrGANS—I, Tur Bopy: HEAD, NECK AND BODY PROPER.—II. THE 
MEMBERS: BILL, WINGS, TAIL, FEET. 13 
Sec. IV. Directions — How To Usk THe Key. — How To Measure a SPECI- 
MON, TG. . . « 53 
ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE GENERA. WS RGEaCy attest 61 
SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS. 69 
SYNOPSIS OF THE FOSSIL FORMS. . 347 
ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. . S51 


INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 


PAE RODUCTION. 


Birpos Derinep — Brier Descriperion 


OF THEIR PECULIAR COVERING. 


§ 1. Sorence (Lat. scire, to know) is knowledge set in order; knowledge 
disposed after the rational method that best shows, or tends to show, the mu- 
tual relations of observed facts. Such orderly knowledge of any particular 
class of facts — such methodical disposition of observations upon any par- 
ticular set of objects — constitutes a Special Science. Thus, OrnirHoLOGY 
(Gr. ornithos, of a bird, logos, a discourse) is the Science of Birds. Or- 
nithology consists in the rational arrangement and exposition of all that is 
known of birds. Ornithology treats of the physical structure, physiological 
processes, and mental attributes of birds; of their habits and manners; of 
their geographical distribution; of their relations to each other and to ae 
animals. The first business OF Ornithology is to define its ground; 
answer the question 

§ 2. Wuat is A Brrp? A Bird is an air-breathing, egg-laying, warm- 
blooded, feathered vertebrate, with two limbs (legs) for walking or swim- 
ming, two limbs (wings) for flying or swimming, fixed lungs in a cavity 
communicating with other air-cavities, and one outlet of genito-urinary and 
digestive organs ; with (negative characters) no teats, no teeth, no fleshy lips, 
no external fleshy ears, no (perfect) epiglottis nor diaphragm; no bladder, 
no scrotum, no corpus callosum ; and with the following collateral characters, 
mostly shared by more or fewer other animals Unites jaw hinged with 
the rest of the skull by means of an interposed movable bone, that is also 
movably jointed with two bones of the upper jaw; head jointed with neck 
by only one hinge; shoulder-joints connected with each other by a curved 
bone, the clavicle (with rare exceptions), and with breast-bone by a straight 
stout bone, the coracoid; ribs all bony, most of them jointed in the middle 
as well as with back-bone and breast-bone, and having bony offsets; less 
than three separate wrist and hand-bones ; two fingers, of one or two bones ; 
head of thigh-bone hinged in a ring, not in a cup; one of the two leg-bones 
not forming the ankle-joint ; no separate ankle-bones; less than three sep- 
arate foot-bones ; two to four toes, of two to five bones, always ending in 
claws; both jaws horny-sheathed and nostrils in the upper one; feet and 
toes (when not feathered) horny-sheathed ; three eyelids ; eyeball with hard 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 1. (1) 


4's ae 


2 STRUCTURE OF FEATHERS. 


plates in it, eight muscles on it, and a peculiar vascular organ inside; two 
larynges, or “ Adam’s-apples”; two bronchi; two lungs, perforated to send 
air into various airsacs and even the inside of bones; four-chambered heart, 
with perfect double blood-circulation ; tongue with several bones; two or 
three stomachs; one liver, forked to receive the heart in its cleft; gall- 
bladder or none; more or less diffuse pancreas, or “sweetbread” ; a spleen ; 
intestines of much the same size throughout; cceca, or none; two lobulated, 
fixed kidneys; two testicles fixed in the small of the back, and subject to 
periodical enlargement and decrease; one functional ovary and oviduct ; 
outlets of these last three organs in an enlargement at end of intestine, and 
their products, with refuse of digestion, all discharged through a common 
orifice. But of all these, and other characters, that come under the head 
of description rather than of definition, one is peculiarly characteristic of 
birds; for every bird has FEATHERS, and no other animal has feathers. 
Naturally, then, we look with special interest upon 


FEATHERS : 


§ 3. a. Tuer Srruoture. A perfect feather consists of a main stem, 
or scape (scapus; pl. 1, fig. 7, ad), and a supplementary stem or after- 
shaft (hyporhachis; pl. 1, fig. 7, 6), each bearing two webs or vanes (veux- 
illum, pl. veuilla; pl. 1, fig. 7,c), one on either side. The scape is divided 
into two parts; one, the tube or barrel, or “quill” proper (calamus; pl. 1, 
fig. 7, d) is hard, horny, hollow, cylindrical and semitransparent; one end 
tapers to be inserted into the skin; the other ends, at a point marked by 
a little pit (wmbdlicus), in the shaft (rhachis), or second part of the stem ; 
the rhachis is squarish, and tapers to a point; is less horny, is opaque, and 
filled with white pith; it alone bears the vexilla. The after-shaft has the 
same structure, and likewise bears vexilla; it springs from the stem, at junc- 
tion of calamus and rhachis, close by the umbilicus. It is generally very 
small compared with the rest of the feather; but in a few birds is quite as 
large; it is wanting in many; and is never:developed on the principal wing 
and tail feathers. The vane consists of a series of appressed, flat, narrowly 
lance-shaped or linear lamin, set obliquely on the rhachis, and divarica- 
ting outward from it at a varying angle; each lamina is called a barb 
(barba; pl. 1, fig. 6, a, a). Now just as the rhachis bears barbs, so does 
each barb bear its vanes (barbules; pl. 1, fig. 6, 6, b, c); it is these last 
that make a vane truly a web, that is, they connect the barbs together, so 
that some force is required to pull them apart. They are to the barbs ex- 
actly what the barbs are to the shaft, and are similarly given off on both 


sides of the barbs, from the upper edge of the latter. They are variously - 


shaped, but generally flat sideways, with upper and lower border at base, 
rapidly tapering to a slender thread-like end; and are long enough to reach 
over several barbules of the next barb, crossing the latter obliquely. All 
the foregoing structures are seen with the eye or a simple pocket lens, but 
the next two require a microscope; they are barbicels (or ezléa; pl. 1, fig. 


TYPES OF FEATHERS. . 3 


8), and hooklets (hamuli; pl. 1, fig. 8). These are simply a sort of fringe 
to the barbules, just as if the lower edge of the barbule were frayed out, 
and only differ from each other in one being plain, 
hair-like processes, and the other being hooked at the 
end. Barbicels do occur on both anterior. and pos- 
terior rows of barbules; but rarely on the latter; 
hooklets are confined to barbules of the anterior 
series, which, as we have seen, overlie the posterior 
rows of barbules, diagonally forming a meshwork. 
The beautiful design of this structure is evident ;. by 
it, the barbules are interlocked, and the vane of the 
feather made a web; for each hooklet of one barbule 
catches hold of a barbule from the next barb in front, 
—any barbule thus holding on to as many of the bar- 

maid feather of the Lyre- bules of the next barb as it 
front, terminal ewrve: & has hooklets. To facilitate ~ 
this interlocking, the bar- _ 

bules have a thickened upper edge of such size ~ 
that the hooklets can just grasp it. This is clear- 
ly illustrated in pl. 1. fig. 2, where a, a, a, aare __ 
four barbs in transverse section, viewed from the — 
cut surfaces; with their anterior (0, 6, 6, 6), and Be 
posterior (c, ¢, c, c) barbules, the former bearing 
the hooklets which catch over the edge of the 


Fig. 1. Section from loosely barbed 
latter. feather of Lyre-bird. Natural 
size. 


6. But all feathers do not answer the above 
: description. First, the after-shaft may be wanting, as 
B\\ we have seen; then, as frequently happens, hooklets 
ANY “may not be developed, and barbicels may be few or 
E wanting; barbules may be few or wanting, or so trans- 
\ WS 7 formed as to be only recognized by position, and even 
\\ q barbs themselves may be wanting on one side of the 
shaft, as in some tail feathers of the famous Lyre-bird, 
or on both sides, as in certain bristly feathers about the 
mouth and eyelids of various birds. (Certain unusual 
styles of feathers are shown in figs. 1, 2, 3.) Con- 
sideration of these and other modifications has led to 
yy the recognition of three 
BRE § 4. Types or Srrucrurr. 1. The feathery (pen- 
WA nacea), characterized as above. 2. The downy (plum- 
AN YY ulacea), when the stem is short and weak, with soft 
Pie om oie of the extemai Vhachis and barbs, with long, extremely slender, mostly 
Single barb.” thread-like barbules, with little knotty dilatations in 
place of barbicels, and no hooklets. 38. The hairy (jfiloplumacea) with a 
thin, stiff calamus, usually no pith in the rhachis, fine cylindrical stiff barbs 


4 KINDS OF FEATHERS. 


and barbules, the latter wanting barbicels, knots and hooklets. The first 
two types may be found in different parts of the same feather, as in pl. 1, 
fig. 7, which is partly pennaceous, partly plumulaceous. All feathers are 
built upon one of these three plans; and, though seemingly endless in di- 
versity, may be reduced to four 

§ 5. Durrerent Kinps or Ferarners. 1. Contour-feathers (penne) 
have a perfect stem composed of barrel or shaft, and vanes of pennaceous 
structure at least in part, usually with downy structure toward the base. 
They form the great bulk of the plumage, that is upon the surface of a bird, 
exposed to light; their tints give the bird’s colors; they are the most vari- 
ously modified of all, from the fishlike scales of the penguin, to the glit- 
tering plates of the humming-bird, and all the endless array of tufts, crests, 
ruffs and other ornaments of the feathered tribe ; even the imperfect bristle- 
like feathers above-mentioned belong here. Another feature is, that they 
are usually individually moved by cutaneous muscles, of which there may be 
several to each feather, passing to be inserted into the sheath of the tube, 
inside the skin, in which the stem is inserted; it is estimated that some 
birds have twelve thousand of these little feather muscles. Every one 
has seen their operation when a hen shakes herself after a sand-bath; and 
any one may see them plainly under the skin of a goose. 2. Down-feath- 
ers (plumule), characterized by the plumulaceous structure throughout. 
These form a more or less complete investment of the body ; they are almost 
always hidden from view beneath the contour-feathers, like padding about 
the bases of the latter; occasionally they come to light, as in the ruff about 
a condor’s neck, and then usually occur where there are no other feathers ; 
they have an after-shaft or none, and sometimes no rhachis at all, when the 
barbs are sessile in a tuft on the end of the barrel. They often, but not 
always, stand in a regular quincunx between four contour-feathers. 3. The 
semiplumes (semiplume), which may be said to unite the characters of the 
last two, possessing the pennaceous stem of one and the plumulaceous vanes 
of the other. They stand among penne, like the plumule, about the edges 
of patches of the former, or in parcels by themselves, but are always coy- 
ered over by contour-feathers. They are with or without an after-shaft. 4. 
Filoplumes (jiloplume), or thread-feathers ; these have an extremely slen- 
der, almost invisible, stem, not well distinguished into barrel and shaft, and 
no vanes (with rare exceptions), unless a few barbs near the end of the 
rhachis may be held for such. Long as they are, they are usually hidden 
by the contour-feathers, close to which they stand as accessories, one or 
more seeming to issue out of the very sac in which the larger feathers are 
implanted. They are the nearest approach to hazrs that birds have. 

§ 6. Precuniar FrarHers. Certain down-feathers are remarkable for 
continuing to grow indefinitely, and with this growth there is constant break- 
ing off of the ends of the barbs. These feathers, from being always dusted 
over with the dry, seurfy exudation or exfoliation from the follicle in which 
they grow, are called powder down-feathers. They occur in the hawk, par- 


Se 


PLUMAGE: TRACTS AND SPACES. 5 


rot, and gallinaceous tribes, but especially in the heron family, where they 
are always present, and readily seen as two large patches of greasy or dusty, 
whitish, matted feathers over the hips and in front of the breast. Their use 
is not known. : 

§ 7. Frater Or-cranp. With comparatively few and irregular ex- 
ceptions, birds have a singular apparatus for secreting oil with which to lu- 
bricate and polish their feathers. It is a two-lobed, or rather heart-shaped, 
gland, saddled upon the root of the tail; consisting essentially of numerous 
slender secreting tubes or follicles, the ducts of which successively unite 
in larger tubes, and finally perforate the skin at one or more little nipple- 
like eminences. Birds press out a drop of oil with their beak, and then 
dress the feathers with it. The gland is largest in water-birds, which have 
most need of an impervious coating of feathers, and always present among 
them ; very large in the fish-hawk; smaller in other land-birds, and want- 
ing (it is said), among the ostriches, bustards, parrots and some others. (In 
pl. 1, fig. 4, the line 6 points to the oil-gland.) 

§ 8. DevrLopMeNT or Featruers. In a manner analogous to that of 
hair, a feather grows in a little pit or pouch formed by inversion of the der- 
mal layer, and is formed in a closed oval follicle consisting of an inner and 
outer coat separated by a layer of fine granular substance. The outer layer, 
or “outer follicle ” is composed of several thin strata of nucleated epithelial 
cells; the inner is thicker, spongy and filled with gelatinous fluid; a little 
artery and vein furnish the blood-circulation. The inner is the true matrix of 
the feather, evolving from the blood-supply the gelatinous matter, and resolv- 
ing this into cell nuclei; the granular layer is the formative material. The 
outer grows a little beyond the cutaneous sac that holds it, and opens at 
the end; from this orifice the future feather protrudes as a little, fine-rayed 
pencil point. During subsequent growth the follicular layers undergo little 
further change ; it is the granular that becomes the feather. | 

§ 9. All a bird’s feathers, of whatever kind and structure, taken together, 
constitute its ptilosis or 


PLUMAGE. 


(a.) FeaTHerReD Tracts AND UNFEATHERED Spaces. With the exception 
of certain birds that have obviously naked spaces, as about the head, etc., all 
would be taken to be fully feathered. So they are fully covered with feath- 
ers; but it does not follow from this, that feathers are implanted everywhere 
upon the skin. On the contrary, this is the rarest of all kinds of feather- 
ing, though it occurs, almost or quite perfectly, among the penguins and 
toucaus. Let us compare a bird’s skin to a well-kept park, part woodland, 
part lawn; then where the feathers grow is the woodland; where they do 
not grow, the lawn; the former places are called éracts (pteryle) ; the latter 
spaces (apteria) ; they mutually distinguish each other into certain definite 
areas. Not only are the tracts and spaces thus definite, but their size, form 
and arrangement mark whole families or orders of birds, and so are impor- 


Aap RP ae 


“~~ 
LP. 


6 CHANGES OF PLUMAGE. 


tant for purposes of classification. They have been specially studied, named 
and classified by the celebrated Nitzsch, who has laid down the following as 
the general plan obtaining in the vast majority of birds : — s 

(6.) 1. The spinal or dorsal tract (pteryla spinalis, pl. 1, fig. 4,1), 
running along the middle of the bird above from nape of the neck to the 
tail; subject to great variation in width, to dilation and contraction, to 
forking, to sending out branches, to interruption, ete. 2. The humeral tracts 
(pt. humerales, pl. 1, fig. 4,2), always present, one on each wing; narrow 
bands running from the shoulder obliquely backward upon the upper arm- 
bone, parallel with the shoulder-blade. 38. The femoral tracts (pt. femo- 
rales, pl. 1, fig. 4,3), a similar oblique band upon the outside of each 
thigh, but, unlike the last, subject to great variation. 4. The ventral tract 
( pt. gastrei, pl. 1, fig. 3,8), which forms most of the plumage on the 
under part of a bird; commencing at or near the throat, and continued to 
the anus; it is very variable like the dorsal tract, is usually bifurcate, or 
divided into right and left halves with a central apterium, is broad or nar- 
row, branched, ete. ; thus, Nitzsch enumerates seventeen distinct modifica- 
tions! The foregoing are mostly isolated tracts, that is, bands nearly 
surrounded by apteria that are complementary to them; the following are 
continuously, uniformly feathered, and therefore, in general, equivalent to 
the part of the body they represent. Thus, 5, the head tract ( pt. capitis, pl. 
I, figs. 8,4; 4,4), clothes the head and generally runs into the beginning of 
both dorsal and ventral tracts. 6. The wing tract (pt. alaris, pl. 1, figs. 3, 5; 
4,5), represents all the feathers that grow upon the wing, except those of the 
humeral tract. 7. The tail tract (pt. caudalis, pl. 1, figs. 3,6; 4,6), includes 
the tail feathers and their coverts, those surrounding the oil-gland, and usu- 
ally receives the termination of the dorsal, ventral, and femoral tracts. 8. 
The leg tract (pt. cruralis, pl. 1, figs. 3, 7; 4, 7), clothes the legs as far as these 
are feathered, which is sometimes to the toes, generally only to the heel. I 
need not give the spaces, as these are merely the complements of the tracts ; 
and the highly important special feathering of the wings and tail will be 
examined in describing those members for purposes of classification. 

§ 10. Progress anp CHancE. Newly hatched birds are covered with a 
kind of down, entirely different from the feathers they ultimately acquire. 
It is scanty, leaving much of the body naked, in Alétrices, or those birds that 


are reared by the parent in the nest ; but thick and puffy in a few of these, and 


in all Preecoces, that run about at birth. But true feathers are soon gained, 
in some days or weeks, those of wings and tail being the first to sprout. The 
first plumage is usually only worn for a short time —then another is gained, 
and frequently several more changes ensue before the bird attains its mature 
covering. Feathers are of such rapid growth, that we can easily understand 
how exhaustive of vital energies the growth must be, and how critical a pe- 
riod the change is. The renewal of plumage is a process familiar to all under 
the term “moult” (ecdysis). It commonly occurs at least once a year, and 
generally twice, in spring and fall; when old, faded and worn out feathers 


CLASSIFICATION. 7 


are shed, and fresh ones take their place, either over a part or the whole of 
the body. The change frequently or generally results in considerable differ-- 
ences of color, constituting the “seasonal plumages” of so many birds, 
which, in the same bird, may change from black to white even, from plain 
to variegated, from dull to brilliant. But birds also change colors, by actual 
alteration in the tints of the feathers themselves, and by gaining new ones 
without losing any old ones. The generalization may be made, that when 
the sexes are strikingly different in color, the young at first resemble the 
female; but when the old birds are alike, the young are different from 
either. When the seasonal changes are great, the young resemble the fall 
plumage of the old. When the old birds of two different species of the 
same genus are strikingly alike, the young of both are usually intermediate 
between them, and different from either. 

Besides being the most highly developed, most complex, wonderfully per- 
fect and beautiful kind of tegumentary outgrowth; besides fulfilling the 
obyious design of covering and protecting the body, the plumage has its 

§ 11. Prcuniar Orrice: that ef accomplishing the act of flying. For 
all vertebrates, except birds, that progress through the air—the flying-fish 
with its enlarged pectoral fins; the flying reptile (Draco volans) with its 
skinny parachute ; the flying mammal (bat) with its great webbed fingers — 
accomplish aérial locomotion by means of tegumentary expansions. Birds, 
alone, fly with tegumentary outgrowths, or appendages. 


SECT. II. AN ALLUSION TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF Brirps — Taxon- 
omy — STRUCTURE — CHARACTERS — GrRouPS OF DIFFERENT GRADES— 
Types AND ABERRATIONS—EQUIVALENCY— ANALOGY AND AFFINITY 
— EXAMPLE. 


Seeme what a bird is, and how distinguished from other animals, our 
next business is to find out how birds are distinguished from each other ; 
when we shall have the material for 

§ 12. Crassrrication, a prime object of ornithology, without which, 
birds, however pleasing they are to the senses, do not satisfy the mind, 
which always strives to make orderly disposition of things, and so discover 
their mutual relations and dependencies. Classification presupposes that 
there are such relations, as results of the operation of fixed inevitable law; 
it is, therefore, 

§ 13. Taxonomy (Gr. taxis, arrangement, and nomos, law), or the ra- 
tional, /awful disposition of observed facts. Just as taxidermy is the art 
of fixing a bird’s skin in a natural manner, so taxonomy is the science of 
arranging birds themselves in a natural manner, according to the rules that, 
to the best of our knowledge and belief, are deducible from examination of 
their 

§ 14. Srrucrure: The physical constitution of a bird; all the material 
constituents of a bird, and the way its parts or organs are put together. 


8 CLASSIFICATION. 


Internal structure, or anatomical structure (ana, and lemnein, to cut), so 
called because we have to cut into a bird to see it, comprehends all the parts 
of a bird that are ordinarily hidden from view; external structure, those 
that lie exposed to view upon the surface. Much time has been wasted in 
arguing the superiority of one or the other of these for purposes of classifi- 
cation; as if a natural classification must not be based upon all points of 
structure! as if internal and external points of structure were not reciprocal 
and the mutual exponents of each other! External points of structure 
_ stand to internal somewhat in the relation of interest and capital; it is legit- 
imate and wise enough to use interest only unless we need to draw upon 
capital. In our greater taxonomic enterprises —in the founding of our 
higher groups—we require all the capital we can get; in our lesser under- 
takings the interest alone is sufficient. Moreover, birds are so much alike 
in their anatomical structure, that this answers taxonomic purpose only for 
higher groups ; and practically, at any rate, we make our lesser divisions so 
readily from external structure, that this may be said to furnish most of our 

§ 15. Zootoeican Caaractrers. <A “character” is any point of struct- 
ure whatsoever that is susceptible of being perceived and described for the 
purpose of distinguishing birds from each other. Characters are of all 
grades, or values, from the trivial ones that separate two species, to the 
fundamental ones that mark off primary divisions. The more characters, of 
whatever grade, that birds have in common, the more closely they are allied 
to each other, and conversely. The possession of more or fewer characters 
in common, results in 

§ 16. DrecGreres or Likeness. Were all birds alike, or did all birds 
differ by the same characters to the same degree, no classification would 
be possible. But we find that they vary within wide limits—from the 
almost imperceptible difference between two hatched in the same nest, to 
the extreme unlikeness between a thrush and a penguin. This is the arena 
of classification; this gives us both the room and the material to divide 
birds into groups, and subdivide these into other groups, of greater or 
lesser “value,” or grade, according to the more or fewer characters shared 
in common. We saw that (in addition to other characters), all birds have 
feathers, which no other animals possess; birds can be separated from other 
animals, but not from each other, by this feature; it is therefore a cLAss 
character. Even the R 

§ 17. Priary Division of birds must be made from a character of less 
value than this. A broad generalization upon the sum total of all the ex- 
hibitions that (recent—geologically) birds make in their modes of life, 
shows that these are of three sorts. Either birds habitually live above the 
earth, in the air or on trees; or they habitually live on the ground ; or they 
habitually live on the water; and in each case, their structure was designed 
and fitted for such particular end. We have, therefore, at the outset three 
types of structure correspondent with, and equivalent to, three plans of life; 
and, if our observations are correct, and our reasoning not fallacious, these 


ORDERS, FAMILIES, 9 


types or plans, seemingly an abstract induction of ours, are as real as the 
birds themselves. It is natural then to divide birds into three primary 
groups: Aérial Birds. (Aves Aéree), Terrestrial Birds (Aves Terrestres) 
and Aquatic Birds (Aves Aquatice). Aun illustration will make this clear. 
Men build machines to transport themselves and their goods; the only 
known media of transportation are the air, the earth and the water; and 
we do not imagine any sort of vehicles more unlike than a balloon, a 
buggy, and a brig ; these, therefore, exemplify the most fundamental division 
of machines for transportation. 

§ 18. Orpers. Taking any one of these types of structure, we find that 
it may be unfolded, or carried out, in different ways. Studying all known 
aquatic birds, for example, we see that their plan of life is fulfilled in four ~ 
different ways; it is exhibited under four aspects, or modes of execution, 
each distinguished by some particular combination of aquatic characters 
with certain other characters that we did not take into account in framing 
our Aves Aquatice. Thus a goose, a gannet, a gull and a guillemot, all 
agree in aquatic characters, but differ from each other by each having certain 
characters that the other three lack. Characters marking such modes of ex- 
hibition are called ordinal; and the groups so organized, Orders. In our 
illustration, there are likewise four plans of aquatic machines; diving bells, 
sailing vessels, steamships and rowboats, clearly distinguished by the way 
in which motion (the prime function of all vehicles) is effected; in this case 
it is by weight, by wind, by steam, by muscle; therefore the machinery by 
which these forces are applied, furnishes ordinal characters of aquatic 
vehicles. 

§ 19. Famiies. But all the birds of an order are not alike; some re- 
semble each other more than they do the rest; so another set of groups 
must be made. These groups are called Families; they consist in a certain 
combination of all ordinal characters with special sets of characters of the 
next lower grade or value. Let « represent the sum total of strictly ordi- 
nal characters, and suppose we find these variously combined with a certain 
number of the next lower grade of characters, as a, b,f for instance; then 
the particular combination x (abc) is one family ; (bef) another; « (cde) 
another, etc., and we shall have as many families under an order as there 
actually are such combinations. Sometimes an order may be represented 
by « (a. . . f); then there is but one family, as, for example, in the aquatic 
order Lamellirostres where the Anatide alone furnish every one of the ordi- 
nal features, and are equivalent to the order; that is to say (a... f) =a, 
because no character from @ to f is wanting in any member of the order. 
In our order sailing vessels, of aquatic machines, masts and sails are ordi- 
nal characters, because they are essential apparatus to catch the wind. 
But these may be of a varying number, etc., upon which we might found 
families of sailing-vessels, as the ship family, represented by x (three masts 
+ square sails) ; the schooner family x (two masts + fore-and-aft sails) ; the 
sloop family ~ (one mast + fore-and-aft sails), etc. Diving bells, I sup- 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 2 


is a 


10 GENERA, SPECIES, VARIETIES. 


pose, are so much alike, that they might be called an order of aquatic 
machines of but one family. 

§ 20. Genera. After family manifestations of ordinal characters, we 
come to the modifications of families themselves, enquiring how many kinds 
of difference (genus, a kind, pl. genera) there are in the birds composing a 
family. The mode of determining genera in a family is precisely like that of 
determining families in an order; it is # again (this time representing fam- 
ily characters) into a varying number or combination of characters of the 
next lower grade, a—f. A genus is the last definite grouping of birds that 
is usually recognized ; it may be defined as the ultimate essential modifica- 
tion of structure (ultimate, because there is none lower; essential, because 
trivial features do not constitute a genus; of structure, because mere size, 
color, etc., are only specific characters). Iw the ship family, the three- 
masted vessel, full-rigged, with square sails, is a genus (ship-proper) ; one 
with square sails on two masts only, and fore-and-aft sails on the mizzen, is 
another genus (bark), and so on. Genera are composed of one or more 

§ 21. Sercrms. The definition of a species has become difficult of late 
years, but for present purposes we may assume that it is any one of the 
constant exponents of a genus, comprehending all the birds that bear to 
each other the relation of parent and offspring; the latter capable of repro- 
ducing ‘ each after its kind’ and maintaining certain characters to an evident 
degree peculiar to itself. Resting, then, upon this, we have little else to 
consider before we reach that most unquestionable fact, an individual bird. 
Species, however, are not absolutely constant ; they vary in size, color, etc., 
within certain limits, under influences not always comprehended as yet, but : 
which seem a part of that universal tendency in nature toward the produc- 
tion of essential unity in diversity; the operation of which, if completely 
effective, would level distinctions and abolish difference in sameness. 

§ 22. A Variety is a step in this direction; for, although it may seem 
an opposite step, yet departure from any given point or standard must be 
approach toward some other. <A variety is (generally) distinguished from 
a species by its tendency to revert to its original stock, or, diverging fur- 
ther from that, to approach some other type. The former case is constantly 
being demonstrated, and the latter is probably susceptible of being proven ; 
but in either case, ¢nconstancy is a marked feature of varieties. Varieties 
apparently produced by difference in food, climate, etc., are called local 
races, When restricted to a small area in or around the general distribution 
of the parent stock; geographical races, when more widely separated over 
large areas. A hybrid is a cross between two species, almost always of the 
same natural genus. Hybrids are generally infertile, while crosses between 
mere varieties are capable of reproduction, so that hybridism becomes in 
some measure a test; nevertheless, exceptions are not wanting. 

§ 23. InrermepiaTE Groupes. Having arrived at the individual bird, we 
will retrace our steps for a moment, for the student must sooner or later 
learn, that, easy as it seems to theoretically determine the foregoing groups, 


INTERMEDIATE AND ABERRANT GROUPS. Wt 


there are many difficulties in the way of their practical definition. This 
is partly because all birds are singularly inter-related, presenting few broad, 
unequivocal, unexceptional characters in the midst of numberless minor 
modifications, and partly because the higher groups, no less than species and 
varieties, shade into each other. In our illustration, for example, we find 
exactly intermediate aquatic machines; thus, it would be difficult for a 
landsman to say whether an hermaphrodite brig belonged to the ship family, 
or the schooner family ; he would have to decide according as he considered 
number of masts, or shape of sails, the more essential family character. 
But the intermediate groups which remain to be examined are not of this 
ambiguous nature ; they are unequivocally referable to some particular group 
of the next higher grade, and, being subordinate divisions, they are distin- 
guished by the prefix swb,-as sub-order, sub-family. Though somewhat 
difficult to define, they are, I think, susceptible of intelligible, if not always 
precise, definition. A sub-group of any grade is framed, without taking 
into consideration any new or additional characters, upon the varying prom- 
inence of one or more of the characters just used to form the group next 
above. In our formula above « (adc) for a certain family of the order «, 
suppose the family character a to be emphasized, as it were, and to pre- 
dominate over } and ¢, to the partial suppression of these last: then a sub- 
family of x (abc) might be expressed thus :—z# (Adc) ; and it is further 
evident, that there will be as many sub-families as there are groups of birds 
in the family representing varying emphasis of a, or 0, orc; asx (aBoc),2 
(46 C), ete. While we take account of new characters of another grade, 
in forming our successive main groups, in our sub-groups, then, we recog- 
nize only more or less of the same characters. But the distinction is not 
always evident; nor is it observed so often as, perhaps, it should be. 

§ 24. TypicaL anpD ABERRANT Groups. Waiving what might be rea- 
sonably argued against considering any group specially “typical” of the 
next higher, we may define a convenient and frequent term: —The typical 
genus of a family, or family of an order, is that one which develops most 
strongly, or displays most clearly, the more essential characters of the-next 
higher group, of which it is one member. And in proportion as it fails to 
express these in the most marked manner, either by bearing their stamp more 
lightly, or by having it obscured or defaced by admixture of the characters 
of a neighboring group, does it become less and less typical (“ subtypical ”) 
and finally aberrant. Suppose the ordinal symbol a, as before, to represent 
the sum of various ordinal characters, more or less essential to the integrity 
of the order; then obviously, the family characters abc, or def may be com- 
bined with a varying value of «; thus, x! (abc) or « (def) and the formula 
of the typical family would be x" (a—f). ‘Thus, it is characteristic of most 
thrushes (Turdidw) to have the tarsus booted, but all do not have it so; 
therefore, in subdividing the family, we properly make a division into 
thrushes with booted tarsi, and thrushes with scutellated tarsi; the former 
are typical of the family, the latter sub-typical or even aberrant. . 


119) AFFINITY AND ANALOGY. 


§ 25. EQUIVALENCE OF Grours. It may sound like a truism to say, that 
groups of the same grade, bearing the same name, whatever that may be, 
from sub-class to sub-genus, must be of the same value; must be distin- 
guished by characters of equal or equivalent importance. Hgquivalence of 
groups is necessary to the stability and harmony of any classificatory sys- 
tem. It will not do to frame an order upon one set of characters here, and 
a family upon a similar set of characters there; but order must differ from 
order, and family from family, by an equal or corresponding amount of dif- 
ference. Let a group called a family differ as much from the other families 
in its own order as it does from some other order, and it is by this very fact 
nota family, but an order itself. Let the orders of birds stand apart a yard, 
say; if, then, any families, so-called, stand as far apart, they are not families. 
It seems a simple proposition, yet it is too often ignored, and always with 
ill result. Two points should be remembered here : first, that the absolute 
size or bulk of a group has nothing to do with its grade; one order might 
contain a thousand species, and another only one, without having its ordinal 
value disturbed. Secondly, any given character may be of different value in 
its application to different groups. Thus, number of primaries, whether 
nine or ten, is a family character almost throughout Oscines; but in one 
Oscine family, Vireonide, it is scarcely a generic feature. It is difficult, 
however, to determine such a point as this last without faithful training in 
ornithology. 

§ 26. Arrinity anp AnaLoey. Birds are allied, or afined, according to 
the number of like characters they employ for like purposes; they are ana- 
logically related according to the number of unlike characters that they use for 
similar purposes. A loon and a cormorant, for instance, are closely affined, 
because they are both fitted in the same way for the pursuit of their prey 
under water. <A dipper (family Cinclide), and a loon (family Colymbide), 
are analogous, because they both pursue their prey under water; but they 
stand almost at the extremes of the ornithological system ; they have almost 
no affinity beyond their common birdhood ; totally different structure is only 
modified for the same ends, that are thus brought about by totally different 
means. So the wings of a butterfly, a bat, and a bird are analogical, be- 
cause they subserve the same purpose in each case; needless to add, these 
creatures have no affinity. 


§ 27. With this cursory glance* at some taxonomic principles I pass to a 
brief explanation of modifications of external characters alone ; some knowl- 
edge of which is necessary to the slightest appreciation of ornithological 
definitions and descriptions. I shall confine myself mainly to consideration 
of those that the student will need to understand in order to use the present 


as. 


*As the present occasion obviously affords no opportunity for an adequate discussion of the classification 
of birds, it is hardly necessary to say to ornithologists, that here I simply assume a class Aves composed of 
recent birds, as an initial step, without considering the broader generalizations deducible from extinct forms; 
and that I speak of species and varieties, in the sense in which these terms are commonly used, waiving 
the biological questions involved. 


EXTERIOR OF A BIRD. 18° 


volume easily and successfully. Here, however, I will insert a tabular illus- 
tration of the foregoing remarks :— 


Class AVES : — Birds. 
(Sub-class * Insessores : — Perching Birds. ) 
Order PassEREs : — Passerine Perchers. 
(Sub-order Oscines : — Singing Passerines. ) 
Family ¢ Turpi>x : — Thrushes. 
(Sub-family + Mimine : — Mocking Thrushes. ) 
Genus t Mrrus :— Mockers. 
(Sub-genus | Mimus: — Typical Mockers. ) 
Species { poLyeLottus : — Many-tongued. 


(Variety caudatus : — Long-tailed.) 


SECT. III. Derrmition snp BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE EXTERIOR OF 
A Birp. — Parts anp Orcans—I. Tur popy: HEAD, NECK AND BODY 
PROPER. —II. THE MEMBERS: BILL, WINGS, TAIL, FEET. 


§ 28. Ture Contour of a bird with the feathers on, is spindle-shaped, or 
JSusiform, tapering at both ends; it represents two cones, joined base to base 
at the middle, or greatest girth of body, tapering in front to the tip of the 
bill, behind to the end of the tail. Obvious design: easiest cleavage of air 
in front, and lessening of drag or wash behind. But this shape is largely 
produced by the lay of the plumage; a 

§ 29. Naxep-Birp presents several prominences and depressions ; this ir- 
regular contour is reducible, in general terms, to fwo double cones. The 
head tapers to a point in front, at the tip of the bill; and nearly to a point 
behind, towards the middle of the neck, in consequence of the swelling mus- 
cles by which it is slung on the neck; from the middle of the somewhat 
contracted or hour-glass shaped neck, this last enlarges toward the body, by 
the swelling of the muscles by which it is slung to the body; the body then 
tapers to the tail. The 

§ 30. Exterior or a Birp is divided into seven parts: 1, head (caput), 
2, neck (collum), 3, body (truncus), 4, bill (rostrum), 5, wings (ale), 6, 
tail (cauda), 7, feet (pedes): 1, 2, 3, are collectively called “ body,” in dis- 
tinction to 4, 5, 6, 7, which are members. The 


* Intermediate groups are in italics and parentheses. 


¢ Families now always end in -ide, and sub-families in -inw, a very convenient distinction, since we thus 
always know the rank designated by words so ending. 


tA bird’s scientific name now INVARIABLY consists of two words —the genus and the species, the former 
first, the latter last: thus, Mimus polyglottus ; but we may, if we wish, interpolate the sub-genus in parenthe- 
ses, and affix the variety with sign var.: thus, Mimus (Mimus) polyglottus, var. caudatus. Generic names 
are always written with a capital; specific names, according to the rules of the British Association, now gen- 
erally followed, should never be, though it is customary to so write those that are derived from the names 
of persons and places, as well as all substantive appellations. 


14 HEAD, NECK, BODY. 


§ 31. Heap has the general shape of a 4-sided pyramid; of which the 
base is applied to the end of the neck, and does not appear from the exte- 
rior; the uppermost side is more or less convex or vaulted, sloping in every 
direction, and tapering in front; the sides proper are flatter, more or less 
perpendicular, and taper in front; the bottom is likewise flattish and simi- 
larly tapering. The departures from this typical shape are endless in degree, 
and variable in kind; they give rise to numerous general descriptive terms, 
as “head flattened,” “head globular,” etc., but these are not susceptible of 
precise definition. The sides present each two openings, eyes and ears; 
their position is variable, both absolutely and in respect to each other. But 
in the vast majority of birds, the eyes are strictly Jateral, and near the mid- 
dle of the side of the head, while the ears are behind and a little “below. 
Exceptions :—owls have eyes “anterior ;” woodcock and snipe have ears be- 
low and not behind the eyes. The mouth is always a horizontal fissure in 
the apex of the cone; there are no other openings in the head proper, for 
the nostrils are always in the bill.. The 

§ 32. Neck, in effect, is a simple cylinder: rendered somewhat hour- 
glass shaped as above stated. Its length is variable, as is the number of 
bones it has. Bearing the head with the bill, which is a bird’s true hand, it 
is unusually flexible, to permit the necessarily varied motions of this impor- 
tant organ. Its least length may be said to be that which allows the point 
of the bird’s beak to touch the oil-gland on the rump; its length is usually 
in direct proportion to length of legs, in obvious design of allowing the 
beak to touch the ground easily to pick up food. Its habitual shape is a 
double curve like the letter S; the lower belly of the curve fits in the space 
between the legs of the merry-thought (furcula) ; the upper limb of the 
curve holds the head horizontal. This sigmoid flexure (sigma, Greek S) is 
produced by the shape of the jointing surfaces of the several bones: it may 
be increased, so that the upper end touches the lower belly; may be de- 
creased to a straight line, but is scarcely carried beyond this in the opposite 


direction. As a generalization, the neck may be called longest in wading - 


birds; shortest in perching birds; intermediate in swimming birds; but 
some waders, as plovers, have short necks; and some swimmers, as swans, 
extremely long ones; a very long neck, however, among perching birds is 
rare, and confined mainly to a crane-like African hawk, and certain of the 
lowest perchers that stand on the confines of the waders. The shape of the 

§ 33. Bopy PRopPER or trunk (L. éruncus), is obviously referable to that 
of the egg; it is ovate, (lL. ovum, an egy). The swelling breast muscles 
represent the but of the egg, which tapers backwards. But this shape is 
never perfectly expressed, and its variations are unnumbered. In general, 
perching birds have a body the nearest to an oval; among waders, the oval 
is usually compressed, or flattened perpendicularly, as is well seen in the 
heron family, and still better in the rail family, where the narrowing is at 
an’extreme ; among swimmers, the body is always more or less depressed, 
or flattened horizontally, and especially underneath, to enable these birds to 


TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BODY. 15 


rest with stability on the water; a duck or a diver shows this well. Speak- 
ing of shape of body, I must allude to the 

§ 34. Cenrre or Gravity of a bird, and show the admirable provision 
by which this is kept beneath the centre of the body. The enormous breast- 
muscles of a bird are its heaviest parts; sometimes they weigh, to speak 
roundly, as much as one-sixth of the whole bird. Now these are they that 
effect all the movements of the wings at the shoulder-joint, lifting as well as 
lowering the wings; did they all pull straight, the lifters would have to be 
above the shoulder; but they all lie below, and the lifters accomplish their 
office by running through a pulley, which changes their line of traction ; they 
work, in short, like men hoisting sails from the deck of a vessel; and thus, 
like a ship’s cargo, a bird’s chief weight is kept below the centre of motion. 
Topheayiness is further obviated by the fact that birds with a long, heavy 
neck and head draw this in upon the breast, and extend the legs behind, as is 
well shown in a heron flying. The nice adjustment of balance by the vari- 
able extension of the head and legs is exactly like that produced by shifting 
the weight along the bar of a steel-yard ; this, with the slinging of the chief 
weight under the wings instead of over or even between them, enables a 
bird to keep right side up in flight, without exertion. 


Sub-sect.1. Of the Body; its Topography, etc. 

§ 35. Brstpes being divided as above into body and members, the exte- 
rior of a bird is further subdivided ; the body being mapped out, mainly for 
purposes of description, into regions, and the members being similarly re- 
solyed into their component parts or organs. We have first to notice, as 
the most general, the 

§ 36. Upper anp Unprr Parts. Draw a line from the corner of the 
mouth along the side of the neck to and through the shoulder-joint and 
thence along the side of the body to the root of the tail; all above this line, 
including upper surface of wings and tail, are upper parts; all below, includ- 
ing under surfaces of wings and tail, are under parts; called respectively, 
“above” and “below.” ‘The distinction is purely arbitrary, but so conven- 
ient that it is practically indispensable ; for it will be seen in a moment, how 
an otherwise lengthy description can be compressed into, for example, four 
words: “above, green; below, yellow:” and these terms are often used 
because many birds’ colors have some such simple general character. 
The “upper parts” of the body proper (§ 33) have, also, received the gen- 
eral name of noteuwm (Gr. notos, back; fig. 4, 12) : the “under parts,” simi- 
larly restricted, that of gastreum (Gr. gaster, belly; fig. 4, 20). These two 
are 

§ 37. Never Naxep, while both head and neck may be variously bare of 
feathers. The only exception is the transient condition of certain birds dur- 
ing incubation: when, either, like the eider duck, they pull feathers off the 
belly to cover the eggs or even to build the nest, or, like several other birds, 
the plumage below is worn off in setting. The gastreeum is rarely pecu- 


16 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BODY. 


liarly ornamented with feathers of different texture or structure from those 
of the general plumage; but an instance of this is seen in our Lewis’ wood- 
pecker. »The noteum, on the contrary, is often the seat of extraordinary 
development of feathers, either in size, shape or texture; as the singularly 
elegant plumes of the herons. Individual feathers of the noteum are 
generally pennaceous (§ 4), in greatest part straight and lanceolate; and 


47 481 2 
Ree 


tom. 


Fig. 4.— Topography of a Bird. 


1, forehead (frons). 2, lore. 3, cireumocular region. remiges. 28, primary coverts. 29, alula, or bastard wing. 
4, crown (vertex). 5, eye. 6, hind head (oceiput). 7, 30, greater coverts, 31, median coverts. 32, lesser coverts. 
nape (nucha), 8, hind neck (cervix). 9, side of neck. 33, the ** throat,” including 34, 37, 38. 34, juqulum or lower 
10. interscapular region, 11, dorsum, or back proper, in- throat. 35,auriculars. 36, malar region. -37, gula, or mid- 
cluding 10. 12, notewm, or upper part of body proper, dle throat. 58, mentum, or chin, 39, angle of commis- 
including 10, 11, and 13. 13, rump (wropygium). 14, upper sure, or corner of mouth, 40, ramus of under mandible. 
tail coverts. 15, tail. 16, under tail coverts. 17, tarsus. 41, side of under mandible. 42, gonys. 43, apex, or tip of 
18, abdomen. 19, hind toe (ha/lur). 20, gastreum, inelud- bill. 44, tomia, or cutting edges of the bill. 45, culmen, 
ing 18 and 24, 21, outer or fourth toe. 22, middle or third or ridge of upper mandible, corresponding to gonys. 46, 
toe. 23, side of the body. 24, breast (pectus). 25, prima- side of upper mandible. 47, nostril. 48 passes across the 
ries. 26, secondaries. 27, tertiaries; nos. 25, 26, 27 are all bill a little in front of its base, : 


as a whole they lie smoothly zmbricated (like shingles on a roof). The 
gastreeal feathers are more largely plumulaceous (§ 4 ), less flat and imbri- 
cated, but even more compact, that is, thicker, than those of the upper 
parts ; especially among water birds, where they are all more or less curly, 
and very thickset. There are subdivisions of the 


§ 38. Noraum. Beginning where the neck ends, and ending where the — 


tail coverts begin, this part of the bird is divided into back (Lat. dorsum; 
fig. 4,11) and rump (L. wropygium fig. 4,13). These are direct continuations 
of each other, and their limits are not precisely defined. The feathers of 
both are on the pteryla dorsalis (§ 8, 6). In general, we may say that the 
anterior two-thirds or three-quarters of noteum is back, and the rest rump. 
With the former are generally included the scapular feathers, or scapulars: 
these are they that grow on the pleryle humerales (§ 8, 6): the region of 


—————S 


— 


TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BODY. 1% 


noteum that they form is called scapulare (Li. scapula, shoulder-blade) ; 
that part of noteum strictly between them is called interscapulare (fig. 4, 10) ; 
it is often marked, as in the chipping sparrow, with streaks or some other 
distinguishing coloration. A part of dorsum, lying between interscapulare 
and uropygium, is sometimes recognized as the “lower back” (Li. ¢ergum), 
but the distinction is not practically useful. To uropygium probably also 
belong the feathers of the pieryle femorales (§ 8, 6), and at any rate they 
are practically included there in descriptions; but these properly represent 
the flanks (Li. hypochondria), that is, the sides of the rump. They are 
sometimes the seat of peculiarly developed or otherwise modified feathers. 
The whole of notzum, taken with the upper surfaces of the folded wings, is 
called the “mantle” (L..stragulum), and is often a convenient term, espec- 
ially in deseribing gulls. In like manner, the 

§ 39. Gastr2vUmM is subdivided into regions, called, in general terms, 
“breast” ( pectus; fig. 4, +), “belly” (abdomen; fig. 4, 18) and “sides of the 
body” (fig. 4,23). The latter belong really as much to back, of course, as to 
belly ; but in consequence of the underneath freighted shape of a bird’s body, 
the line we drew (§ 36) passes so high up along the sides, that these last are 
almost entirely given to gastreum. ‘The breast begins over the merry- 
thought, where jugulum (§ 40) ends; on either hand it slopes up into 
“sides :” behind, its extension is indefinite. Properly, it should reach as far 
as the breast-bone (sternum) does; but this would leave, in many birds, 
almost nothing for abdomen, and the limit would, moreover, fluctuate with 
almost every family of birds, the sternum is so variable in length and shape. 
Practically, therefore, we restrict pectus to the swelling anterior part of 
gastreum, which we call abdomen as soon as it begins to straighten out and 
flatten. Abdomen, like breast, rounds up on either hand into sides; behind, 
it ends in a transverse line that passes across the anus. It has been un- 
necessarily divided into epigastrium, or “pit of the stomach,” and venter, 
or “lower belly ;’ but these terms are rarely used. (“Crissum” is a word 
constantly employed for a region immediately about the anus; but it is 
loosely used, sometimes including the hypochondria, and oftener meaning 
simply the under tail coverts; I refer to it again in speaking of these last.) 
Although these various boundaries seem fluctuating and not perfectly defin- 
ite, yet a little practice will enable the student to appreciate their proper 
use in descriptions, and then use them himself with sufficient accuracy. 
The anterior continuation of body in general, or the 

§ 40. Neck, is likewise subdivided into regions. Its lateral aspects (ex- 
cept in a few birds that have lateral neck tracts of feathers) are formed 
by the meeting over its sides of the feathers that grow on the dorsal and 
ventral pteryle; the skin is really not planted with feathers; and partly on 
this account, perhaps, a distinctively named region is not often expressed ; 
we say simply “sides of the neck” (parauchenia, fig. 4,9). Behind, it is 


‘divided into two portions: a lower, the “hind neck,” or “scruff of the neck,” 


cervix (fig. 4, *), adjoining the back; and an upper, the “nape of the 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 3. 


18 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BODY. 


neck” (nucha; fig. 4, ), adjoining the hind head; these are otherwise known 
as the cervical region, and the nuchal region, respectively, and both together 
as “the neck behind.” The front of the neck has been, perhaps, unnecessa- 
rily subdivided, and the divisions vary with almost every writer. It will be 
sufficient for us in the present connection to call it throat (Lat. gula, fig. 
4, 37), and jugulum (fig. 4, 31), remembering that the jugular portion is 
lower, vanishing in breast, and the gular higher, running into chin along the 
under surface of the head. Gruttur is a term used to signify gula and 
jugulum together; it is simply equivalent to “throat” as just defined. 
Though generally fully covered with feathers, the neck, unlike the body 
proper, is frequently in part naked. When naked behind, it is almost in- 
variably cervix that is bare, from interruption of the upward extension of the 
pteryla dorsalis ; as exemplified in many herons. Mucha is rarely, if ever, 
naked except in continuation of general nakedness of the head. Similarly, 
gula is naked from above downwards, as is especially illustrated in nearly 
all the order Steganopodes, as pelicans, cormorants, etc., that have a naked 


throat-pouch; or some vultures, whose nakedness of head extends over 


nucha, and along gula, as if the feathers were killed by over-manuring with 
the filthy substances these birds eat. The condor has a singular ruffle all 
around the neck, of close, downy feathers, as if to defend the roots of the 
other feathers from such consequence. Jugulum becomes naked in a few 
birds, where a distended crop or craw protrudes, pushing apart the feathers 
of two branches of the pteryla ventralis as these ascend the throat. The 
neck is not ordinarily the place of remarkably modified feathers; they might 
restrict freedom of motion in the neck; to this:rule, however, there are 
signal exceptions. Among these may be mentioned here, the grouse family, 


among our representatives of which, the “ruffed” has singular tufts on the 


sides of the neck; the “pinnated” little wing-like feathers there, covering 
bare, distensible skin, and the “cock of the plains” has curious, stiff, scaly 
feathers ; unless these rather belong to pectus. Cervix proper almost never 
has modified feathers, but often a transverse coloration different from that of 
the rest of the upper parts ; when conspicuous, this is called “cervical collar,” 
to distinguish it from the guttural or jugular “collars” or rings of color. 
Nucha is frequently similarly marked with a “nuchal band ;” often, special 
developments there take the form of lengthening of the feathers, and we 
have a “nuchal crest.” More particularly in birds of largely variegated 
colors, guttur and jugulum are marked Jengthwise with stripes and streaks, 
of which those on the sides are apt to be different from those along the 
middle line in front. Jugulum occasionally has lengthened feathers, as in 
many herons. Higher up, the neck in front may have variously length- 
ened or otherwise modified feathers. Conspicuous among these are the 
ruffs, or tippets, of some birds, especially of the grebe family, and, above 
all our other birds, of the male ruff (Machetes pugnax). But these, and a 
few other modifications of the feathers of the upper neck, are more con- 
veniently considered with those of the 


TOPOGRAPHY OF THE HEAD. 19 


§ 41. Heap. Though smaller than either of the parts already considered, 
the head has been more minutely mapped out, and such detail is necessary 
from the number of recognizable parts or regions it includes. Without pro- 
fessing to give all that have been named, I describe what will be needed for 
our present purposes. 

(a). “Top of the head” is a collective expression for all the superior sur- 
face, from base of the bill to nucha, and on the sides nearly or quite to the 
level of the upper border of the eyes. This is pilewm (fig. 4,1, 4,6); it 
is divided into three portions. Forehead, or frontal region, or, simply, “the 
front” (Li. frons; fig. 4,1) includes all that slopes upward from the bill — 
generally to about opposite the anterior border of the eyes. Middle head or 
crown (L. corona), or vertex (L. vertex; fig. 4,4), includes the top of the 
head proper, extending from forehead to the downward slope towards nucha. 
This last slope is hind head, or occiput (fig. 4,6). The lateral border of all 
three together constitutes the “superciliary line,” that is, line over the eye 
(Lat. super, over, cilia, hairs [of the brows in particular] ). 

(b). “Side of the head” is a general term defining itself. It presents for 
consideration the following regions: orbital, or circumorbital (L. orbis, an 
orb, properly, here, the circular hole in the skull itself that contains the eye- 
ball; fig. 4,3) is the small space forming a ring around the eyes; it em- 
braces these organs, with the upper and under lids (Li. palpebre) ; where 
these meet in front and behind respectively, is the anterior canthus and poste- 
rior canthus. ‘The region is also subdivided into supra-orbital, infra-orbital, 
ante-orbital and post-orbital, according as its upper, under, front or back por- 
tion is specially meant. ‘The position of the circumorbital varies in differ- 
ent families; generally, it is midway, as stated, but may be higher or lower, 
crowded forward toward the base of the bill, or removed to the back upper 
corner of the side of the head, as strikingly shown in the woodcock. The 
aural or auricular (fig. 4, 35) region is the part lying over the external ear- 
opening; its position varies in heads of different shape; but in the vast 
majority of cases it is situated a little behind and below the eye. Wherever 
located it may be known at a glance, by the texture of the auricular feathers 
(shortly, the auriculars) covering the-opening. Doubtless to offer least ob- 
stacle to passage of sound, these are a tuft of feathers with loose vexilla 
(§ 3) from greater or less disconnection of the barbs (§ 3); and they may 
collectively be raised and turned forward, exposing the ear-opening ; they are 
extremely large and conspicuous in most owls. “Temporal region,” or the 
temples (L. tempora, times, or age, because an elderly man’s hair whitens 
there first) is a term not often used ; it designates the part between eyes and 
ears, not well distinguished from the post-orbital space. At the lowermost 
posterior corner of the head a protuberance is seen, or may be felt; it is 
where the lower jaw is hinged to the skull, and is called the “angle of the 
jaw ;” it is generally just below and behind the ear. The lore (L. lorum, 
strap or thong; hence, reins or bridle; hence, place where the main strap of 
a bridle passes; fig. 4, 2) is an important region. It is generally pretty 


20 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE HEAD. 


much all the space betwixt the eye and the sides of the base of the upper 
mandible (§ 44). Thus, we say of a hawk, “lores bristly ;” and examina- 
tion of a bird of that kind will show how large a space is covered by the 
term. Lore, however, should properly be restricted to a narrow line 
between the eye and bill in the direction of the nostrils. It is excellently 
shown in the heron and grebe families, where “naked lores” is a distinctive 
family character. The lore is an important place, not only from being thus 
marked in many birds, but from being frequently the seat of specially 
modified or specially colored feathers. The rest of the side of the head, 
including the space between angle of jaw and bill, has the name of cheek 
(L. gena, firstly eyelid, then, and generally, the prominence under the eye 
formed by the cheek-bones ; fig. 4, 35). It is bounded above by lore, infra- 
orbital, and auricular; below, by a more or less straight line, representing 
the lower edge of the bony prong of the under mandible (§ 44). It is 
cleft in front for a varying distance by the backward extension of the gape 
of the mouth; above this gape is more properly gena, or malar region in 
strictness; below it is jaw (mazilla), or rather “side of the jaw.” The 
lower edge of the jaw definitely separates the side of the head from the 

(c). “Under surface” of the head; properly bounded behind by an imag- 
inary line drawn straight across from one angle of the jaw to the other, and 
running forward to a point between the forks of the under mandible (§ 44). 
As already hinted, “throat” (gula; fig. 4, 37) extends upward and forward 
into this space without obvioussdividing line; it runs into chin (Li. mentum; 
fig. 4, 38) of which it is only to be said, that it is the (varying in extent) 
anterior part of the under surface of the head. Anteriorly, it may be con- 
veniently marked off, opposite the point where the feathers end on the side 
of the lower jaw, from the feathery space (when any) between the branches 
of the under mandible itself; this latter space is called the énterramal (Li. 
inter, between, ramus, fork). 

(d). The head is so often marked lengthwise with different colors, apt to 
take such definite position, that these lines have received special names. 
Median vertical line is one along the middle of pileum, from base of culmen 
(§ 50) to nucha; dateral vertical lines bound it on either side. Superciliary 
line has just been noticed; below it runs the lateral stripe; that part of it 
before the eye, is loral or ante-orbital; behind the eye, post-orbital; when 
these are continuous through the eye, they form a transocular line; helow 
this is malar line, cheek-stripe, or frenum; below this, on the under jaw, 
maxillary line; in the middle below, mental or gular lines. The lines are 
stripes (i. plage) when narrow and distinct, like the welt of a whip-lash ; 
streaks (sér¢e) when narrow and somewhat erratic; and vitte or fascie when 
quite broad, as is particularly likely to be the case with the eye-line.* 


*[ had thought of a section on patterns of coloration (picture), but the attempt to reduce birds’ infinitely 
varied colors to generalized formulas would take too much space. I may add, however, conveniently in 
this connection, the following: Considerable areas of color take name from the parts they occupy, down 
to what may be called variegations. These are produced in two ways: (1) by insensible change of colors, either 
in fading into lighter, or shading into darker tints of the same; as an indefinite brown into black, gray or 


— ss S- 


— ae 


| a 


ee le pe Ne 


See 


ES ee 


PTILOSIS OF THE HEAD. 21 


(e). No part of the body has so variable a ptilosis (§ 9) as the head. In 
the vast majority of birds, it is wholly and densely feathered; it ranges 
from this to wholly naked; but nakedness, it should be observed,-means 
only absence of perfect feathers, for most birds with unfeathered heads have 
a hair-like growth on the skin. Our samples of naked headed birds, are the 
turkey, the vultures, the cranes, and some few birds of the heron tribe. 
Associated with more or less complete “baldness,” is frequently the presence 
of various fleshy outgrowths, as combs, wattles, caruncles (warty excres- 
cences), /obes and flaps of all sorts, even to enumerate which would exceed 
our limits. The parts of the barn-yard cock exemplify the whole; among 
North American birds they are very rare, being confined, in evident devel- 
opment at any rate, to the wild turkey. Sometimes horny plates take the 
place of feathers on part of the head; as in the coots and gallinules. A 
very common form of head nakedness marks one whole order of birds, the 
Steganopodes, which have mentum and more or less of gula naked, and 
transformed into a sort of pouch, extremely developed in the pelicans, 
and well seen in the cormorants. The next commonest is definite bareness 
of the lores, as in all herons and grebes. A little orbital space is bare in 
many birds, as the vulturine hawks, and some pigeons. Among water birds 
particularly more or less of the interramal space is almost always unfeath- 
ered; the nakedness always proceeds from before backwards. With the 
rare exceptions of a narrow frontal line, and a little space about the angle of 
the mouth, no other special parts of the head than those above given are 
naked in any North American bird, unless associated with general baldness. 

(f). The opposite condition, that of redundant feathering, gives rise to all 
the various crests (L., pl. eriste) that form such striking ornaments of many 
birds. Crests proper belong to the top of the head, but may be also held 
to include those growths on its side; these together being called crests in 
distinction to the ruffs, rufiles, beard, ete., of gula or mentum. Crests may 
be divided into two kinds:—1, where the feathers are simply lengthened 
or otherwise enlarged, and 2, where the texture, and sometimes even the 
structure (§ 4) is altered. Nearly all birds possess the power of moving 
and elevating the feathers on the head, simulating a slight crest in moments 
of excitement. The general form of a crest is a full soft elongation of the 
coronal feathers collectively ; when perfect such a crest is globular, as in 
the Pyrocephalus (genus 111) ; generally, however, the feathers lengthen on 


white; or by unmarked change of a secondary color, as green into blue or yellow. (2) by obvious markings. 
Markings are all reducible to two kinds, streaking and spotting. Streaking, as a generic term, is sharply 
divisible into lengthwise and crosswise. Lengthwise streaking comprehends all kinds of streaks, stripes, vitta, 
fascie, with the distinctions above given in the text. Crosswise streaking is called barring, and always runs 
transyerse to the axis of a bird; if the lines are straight, it is banding: if undulating, it is waving; if very 
fine and irregular, it is vermiculation (L. vermiculus, a little worm). Spotting is graded according to size 
of the markings, from dotting or pointing, to blotching or splashing; and spots are also designated accord- 
ing to their shape, as round, square, U-shaped, V-shaped, hastate, sagittate, etc. Very fine spotting mixed 
with streaking, is called marbling; when indistinct, nebulation or clouding ; intermediate special marks have 
particular names, as crescents. Distinct round spots are ocelli (“little eyes”). Indistinct variegations of any 
sort are called obsolete. Washes of color over a definite color, are called tinges oy tints. Color is glossy when 
it shines; metallic, when it glitters; iridescent when it changes with different lights. Colors are also bright 
dull, dead (said of white), opaque, or velvety (said of deep colors, chiefly black), etc. 


22 PTILOSIS OF THE HEAD. 


the occiput more than on the vertex or front, and this gives us the simplest 
and commonest form. Such crests, when more particularly occipital, are usu- 
ally connected with lengthening of nuchal feathers, and are likely to be of a 
thin, pointed shape, as well shown in the kingfisher. Coronal or vertical 
crests proper, are apt to be rather different in coloration than in specially 
marked elongation of the feathers; they are perfectly illustrated in the king- 
bird, and other species of that genus. Frontal crests are the most elegant of 
all; they generally rise as a pyramid from the forehead, as excellently shown 
in the blue jay, cardinal bird, tufted titmouse and others. All the foregoing 
crests are generally single, but sometimes double; as shown in the two lat- 
eral occipital tufts of the “horned” lark, in all the tufted or “horned” 
owls, and in a few cormorants. Lateral crests are, of course, always double, 
one on each side of the head; they are of various shapes, but need not be 
particularized here, especially since they mostly belong to the second class 
of crests — those consisting of texturally modified feathers. It is a general 
—though not exclusive — character of these last, that they are temporary; 
while the other kind is only changed with the general moult, these are as- 
sumed for a short season only — the breeding season ; and furthermore, they 
are often distinctive of sex. Occurring on the top of the head they furnish 
the most remarkable ornaments of birds. I need only instance the elegant 
helmet-like plumes of the partridges of the genus Lophortyxz (186); the 
graceful flowing train of the Oreortyx (gen. 185); the somewhat similar 
plumes of the night and other herons. ‘The majority of the cormorants, and 
many of the auks, possess lateral plumes of similar description; these, and 
those of the herons are probably —in most cases certainly — deciduous ; while 
those of the partridges above mentioned last as long as the general plumage. 
These lateral plumes, in many birds, especially among grebes, are associated 
with, and, in fact, coalesce with, the ruffs, which are singular lengthening 
and modifying in different ways of feathers of auriculars, genze and gula; and 
are almost always temporary. Seards, or special lengthening of the mental 
feathers alone, are comparatively rare; we have no good example among 
our birds, but a European vulture, Gypaétos barbatus, is one. The feathers 
sometimes become scaly (sguamous) forming, for instance, the exquisite 
gorglets or frontlets of humming-birds. They are often bristly (setaceous), 
as about the lores of nearly all hawks, the forehead of the dabchick, meadow- 
lark, ete. While usually all the unlengthened head feathers point backward, 
they are sometimes erect, forming a velvety pile, or they may radiate in a cir- 
cle from a given point, as from the eye in most owls, where they form a dish. 

In the foregoing, I only mention a few types, chiefly needed to be known 
in the study of our birds; but should add that there are many others, with 
endless modifications, among exotic birds; to these, however, I cannot even 
allude by name. Peculiarities of nasal feathers, and others around the base 
of the bill, are noticed below. Forms of crests are illustrated in figs. 21, 
22, 23, 24, 32, 56; 95, 96,107, 109, 114, ATi, 1255 eis ooo bye 
153, 154, 177, 194, 202: 


OF THE BILL. 23 


Sub-sect. 2. Of the Members; their parts and organs. 


i. tee Bint. 


§ 42. Tue Birt is hand and mouth in one: the instrument of prehension. 
As hand, it takes, holds and carries food or other substances, and in many 
instances, feels; as mouth, it tears, cuts, or crushes, according to the nature 
of the substances taken; assuming the functions of both lips and teeth, 
neither of which birds possess. An organ thus essential to the prime func- 
tions of birds, one directly related to their various modes of life is of the 
utmost consequence in a taxonomic point of view; yet, its structural modi- 
fications are so various and so variously interrelated, that it is more impor- 
tant in framing families and genera than orders; more constant characters 
must be employed for the higher groups. The general 

§ 43. Snape of the bill is referable to the cone; it is the anterior part of 
the general cone that we have seen to reach from its point to the base of the 
skull. This shape confers the greatest strength combined with the greatest 
delicacy ; the end is fine to apprehend the smallest objects, while the base is 
stout to manipulate the largest. But in no bird is the cone expressed with 
entire precision ; and in most, the departure from this figure is great. The 
bill aLways consists of two, the upper and the lower 

§ 44. Manprpzes (fig. 5), which lie, as their names indicate, above and 
below, and are separated by a horizontal fissure —the mouth. Each mandi- 
ble aLways consists of certain projecting skull-bones, 
sheathed with more or less horny integument in lieu of 
true skin. The frame-work of the Upper mandible is 
(chiefly) a bone called the intermazillary, or better, 
in this case, the premazillary. In general, this is a 
three-pronged or tripodal bone running to a point in : 
front, with one, the uppermost prong, or foot, im- { / /™~ \ 
planted upon the forehead, and the other two, lower "fig. 5, Tega es pais 
and horizontal, running into the sides of the front of a, side or upper mandible; b, cul- 


men; c, nasal fossa; d, nostril; e, 


the skull. The scaffold of the Under mandible is a Gece below); F gape; or'whole com- 


missural line; g, rictus; 2, commis- 


compound bone called inferior maxillary; it is U-, or $272! point or angle of the mouth; 


4; ae of ae ee Ve fous of 
. ° : ° er mandibles (the refer 4 
V-shaped, with the point or convexity in front, and tinese should have been drawn to 


indicate the corresponding tomia 


the prongs running to either side of the base of the of upper mandible); &, angle of 
skull behind, to be there movably hinged. These two ™™Ures ” tips of mandibles. 

bones, with certain accessory bones of the upper mandible, as the palate 
bones, etc., together with the horny investment, constitute the Jaws. Both 
jaws, in birds, are movable; the under, by the joint just mentioned; the 
upper, either by a joint at, or by the elasticity of the bones of, the forehead ; 
it is moved by a singular muscular and bony apparatus in the palate, 
further notice of which Would involve anatomical details. When closed, 
the jaws meet and fit along their opposed edges or surfaces, in the same 


manner, and for the same purposes, as the lips and teeth of man or other 


ae) (C.ds ie f g 
; I 


D<2z. 


24 DIFFERENT KINDS OF BILLS. 


vertebrate animals. All bills, thus similarly constituted, have been 
divided * into 

§ 45. Four CuasseEs, representing as many ways in which the two man- 
dibles close upon each other at the end. 1. The epignathous (Gr. epi, upon, 
gnathos, jaw) way, plan, or type, in which the upper mandible is longer 
than the under, and its tip is evidently bent down over the tip of the lower. 
2. The hypognathous (Gr. hypo, under), in which the lower mandible is 
longer than the other. 3. The paragnathous (Gr. para, at or by), in which 
both are of about equal length, and neither is evidently bent over the other. 
4. The metagnathous (Gr. meta, with, beside, etc.), in which the points of 
the mandibles cross each other. The second and fourth of these are ex- 
tremely rare; they are exemplified, respectively, by the skimmer and the 
cross-bill (geuera 295 and 60). The first is common, occurring through- 
out the birds of prey, the parrots, and among the petrels, gulls, etc., ete. 
The great majority of birds exhibit the third; and among them, there is 
such evident gradation into epignathism, that it is necessary to restrict the 
latter to its complete development, exhibited in the intermaxillary bone di- 
vested of its horny sheath, which often, as among flycatchers, etc., forms a 
little overhanging point, but does not constitute epignathism. These classes, 
it should be added, though always applicable, and very convenient. in de- 
scriptions, are purely arbitrary, that is, they by no means correspond to 
any four primary groups of birds, but on the contrary, usually only mark 
families and the subdivisions of families; and the four types may be seen 
in contiguous genera. The general shape of the bill has also furnished 

§ 46. Ovrner Cxasses, for many years used as a large basis for ornitho- 
logical classification ; but which the progress of the science has shown to be 
merely as convenient as, and only less arbitrary than, the foregoing. The 
principal of these are represented by the following types: — A, among land 
birds. 1. The jisstrostral, or cleft, in which the bill is small, short, and 
with a very large gap running down the side of the head, as in the swallow, 
chimney-swift, whippoorwill. 2. The ¢enucrostral, or slender, in which the 
bill is small, ong, and with a short cleft; as in the humming-bird, creeper, 
nuthatch. 38. The dentirostral, or toothed, in which, with a various gen- 
eral shape, there is present a nick, tooth, or evident lobe in the opposed 
edges of one or both mandibles near the end; as in the shrike, vireo, and 
some wrens, thrushes and warblers. 4. The conirostral, or conical, suffi- 
ciently defined by its name, and illustrated by the great finch family and 
some allied ones. B, among water birds. 5. The longirostral, or long, an 
aquatic style of the tenuirostral, best exhibited in the great snipe family. 6. 
The pressirostral, or the compact, illustrated by the plovers, etc., and quite 
likely analogous to the conirostral. 7. The cultrirostral, cutting, perhaps 
analogous to the dentirostral, exemplified in the heron group. None of 
these are now used to express natural groups, in strict definitions; all are 


* By the writer: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Dec. 1869, p. 213. 


_ 


———— se CU lll 


VARIOUS FORMS OF BILLS. 25 


conyenieut incidental terms in general descriptions. Various other lesser 
terms, expressing special modifications, as lamellirostral, acutirostral, etc., 
are employed; but all are best used, now, as common, not as proper names, 
simply descriptive of 

§ 47. Orner Forms. A bill is called Jong, when notably longer than the 
head proper; shoré, when notably shorter; medium, in neither of these con- 
ditions. It is compressed, when higher than wide, at the base at least, and 
generally for some portion of its length; depressed, when wider than high ; 
terete, under neither of these conditions. It is recurved, when curved up- 
ward; decurved, when curved downward; dent, when the variation in either 
direction is at an angle; straight, when not out of line with axis of the head. 
A bill is obtuse (said chiefly of the paragnathous sort) when it rapidly 
comes to an end that therefore is not fine; or when the end is knobby; it is 
acute when it runs to a sharp point; acuminate, when equally sharp and slen- 
derer; attenuate, when still slenderer; subulate (awl-shaped), when slen- 
derer still; acicular (needle-shaped), when slenderest possible, as in some 
humming-birds. A bill is arched, vaulted, turgid, tumid, inflated, etc., 
when its outlines, both crosswise and lengthwise, are notably more or less 
convex; and contracted, when some, or the principal, outlines are concave 
(said chiefly of depressions about the base of the upper mandible, or of con- 
cavity along the sides of both mandibles). A bill is hamulate (hooked) or 
unguiculate (clawed), when strongly epignathous, as in rapacious birds, 
where the upper mandible is like the talon of a carnivorous beast; it is den- 
tate, when toothed (§ 46), as in a falcon; if there are a number of sim- 
ilar “teeth,” it is serrate (like a saw) ; it is cultrate (knife-like) when ex- 
tremely compressed and sharp-edged, as in the auk, skimmer; if much 
curved as well as cultrate, it is faleate (scythe-shaped) ; and each mandible 
may be oppositely faleate, as in the cross-bill. A bill much flattened and 
widened at the end (rare) is spatulate; examples: spoonbill, shoveller duck. 
One is called /amellate, when it has a series of plates or processes just inside 
the edges of the mandibles; as in all the duck order, and in a few petrels ; 
the design is to furnish a sifter or strainer of water, just what is effected in the 
whale, by the “bone” in its mouth. Finally, the far end of the bill, of what- 
ever shape, is called the tip or apex (fig. 5, n); the near end, joined to the 
rest of the skull, the dase; the rest is the continuity. Some other features 
of the bill as a whole are best treated under separate head of 

§ 48. THE COVERING OF THE BILL. (a.) In the great majority of birds, 
including nearly all perchers, many walkers and some swimmers, the sheath- 
ing of the mandibles is wholly hard, horny or corneous; it is integument 
modified much as in the case of the nails or claws of beasts. In nearly all 
waders and most swimmers, the sheath becomes, wholly or partly, softer, and 
is of a dense, leathery texture. But some swimmers, as among the auks, 
furnish bills as hard-covered as any, while some perchers have it partly quite 
soft, so that no unexceptional rule can be laid down; and, moreover, 
the gradations from one extreme to the other are insensible. Probably, 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 4 


26 COVERING OF THE BILL. 


the softest bill is found among the snipes, where it is skinny throughout, 
and in typical snipes vascular and nervous at the tip, becoming a true organ 
of touch, used to feel for worms out of sight in the mud. In all the duck 
order, the bill is likewise soft; but there it is always terminated by a hard, 
horny “nail,” more or less distinct ; and such horny claw also occurs in other 
water birds with softish bills, as the pelican. An interesting modification 
occurs in all, or nearly all, of the pigeon order; these birds have the bill 
hard or hardish at tip and through most of continuity, but towards and at the 
base of the upper mandible the sheath changes to a soft, tumid, skinny 
texture, overarching the nostrils; it is much the same with most plovers. 
But the most important feature in this connection is afforded by the parrots 
and all the birds of prey; one so remarkable that it has received a distinct 
name:—Crrr. ‘The cere (L. cera, wax; because it looks waxy) is a 
dense membrane saddled on the upper mandible at base, so different from the 
rest of the bill, that it might be questioned rather it does not more properly 
belong to the head than to the bill, were it not for the fact that the nostrils 
openin it. Moreover, the cere is often densely feathered, as in the Carolina 
parroquet, in the bill proper of which no nostrils are seen, these being 
hidden in the feathered cere, which, therefore, might be easily mistaken, at 
first sight, for the bird’s forehead. A sort of false cere occurs in some 
water birds, as the jaegers, or skua-gulls (genera 280 and 279). The 
tumid nasal skin of pigeons is sometimes so called; but the term had better 
be restricted to the birds first above named. The under mandible probably 
never presents softening except as a part of general skinniness of the bill. 

(6.) The covering is either entire or pieced. In most birds it is entire ; 
that is, the sheath of either mandible may be pulled off whole, like the 
finger of a glove. It is, however, in many birds divided into parts, by 
various lines of slight connection, and then comes off in pieces; as is the 
case with some water birds, particularly petrels, where the divisions are 
regular, and the pieces have received distinctive names. ‘The entire cover- 
ing of both jaws together, is called rhamphotheca; of the upper alone, rhin- 
otheca; of the under, gnathotheca. 

(c.) The covering is otherwise variously marked; sometimes so strongly, 
that similar features are impressed upon the bones themselves beneath. 
The most frequent marks are various ridges (Li. pl. curine, keels) of all 
lengths and degrees of expression, straight or curved, vertical, oblique, hor- 
izontal, lengthwise or transverse; a bill so marked is said to be striate or 
carinate; when numerous and irregular, they are called ruge (L. ruga, a 
wrinkle) and the bill is said to be corrugated or rugose. When the eleva- 
tions are in points or spots instead of lines, they are called puncte; a bill 
so furnished is punctate, but the last word is oftener employed to designate 
the presence of little pits or depressions, as in the dried bill of a snipe, 
towards the end. Larger, softish, irregular knobs or elevations pass under 
the general name of warts or papille, and the bill so marked is papillose ; 
when the processes are very large and soft, the bill is said to be carunculate 


SPECIAL PARTS OF THE UNDER MANDIBLE. 27 


(L. caro, flesh, diminutive carwneulus, little bit of flesh). Various linear 
depressions, often but not always associated with carine, are grooves or sulci 
(L. sulcus, a furrow) and the bill is then sulcate. Sulci, like carine, are of 
all shapes, sizes and positions; when very large and definite, they are some- 
times called canaliculi, or channels. The various knobs, “horns,” and large 
special features of the bill cannot be here particularized. Any of the fore- 
going features may occur on both mandibles, and they are exclusive of that 
special mark of the upper, in which the nostrils open, and which is consid- 
ered below (§ 51). We have still to notice the special parts of either 
mandible ; and will begin with the simplest, the 

§ 49. Unper Manpiste. Im the majority of birds it is a little shorter 
and a little narrower and not nearly so deep as the upper; but sometimes 
quite as large, or even larger. The upper edge, double (7. e. there is an 
- edge on both sides), is called the mandibular tomium (Gr. temnein, to cut ; 
fig. 5, 7), as far as it is hard; this is received against, and usually a little 
within, the corresponding edge of the upper mandible. The prongs already 
mentioned (§ 44) are the mandibular ram (pl. of L. ramus, a branch; fig. 
5, 7); these meet at some point in front, either at a short angle (like >) or 
with a rounded joining (like © ). At their point of union there is a promi- 
nence, more or less marked (fig. 5, &); this is the Gonys (corrupted from 
the Gr. gonu, a knee; hence, any similar protuberance). That is to say, this 
point is gonys proper; but the term is extended to apply to the whole line of 
union of the rami, from gonys proper to the tip of the under mandible; and 
in descriptions it means, then, the wnder outline of the bill for a corres- 
ponding distance (fig. 5,7). This important term must be constantly held 
in mind. The gonys is to the under mandible what the keel is to a boat. 
It varies greatly in length. Ordinarily, it forms, say, one-half to three- 
fourths of the under outline. Sometimes, as in conirostral birds, a sparrow 
for example, it represents nearly all this outline; while in a few birds it 
makes the whole, and in some, as the puffin, is actually longer than the lower 
mandible proper, because it extends backwards in a point. Other birds 
have almost no gonys at all: as a pelican, where the rami only meet at the 
extreme tip, or in the whole duck family, where there is hardly more. 
As the student must see, the length of the gonys_ is simply a matter 
of the early or late fusion of the rami, and that similarly, their mode 
of fusion, as in a sharp ridge, a flat surface, a straight line, a curve, 
ete., results in corresponding modifications of its special shape. The 
interramal space (§ 41, c),is complementary to length of gonys: some- 
times it runs to the tip of the bill, as in a pelican, sometimes there is next 
to none, as in a puffin; while its width depends upon the degree of diver- 
gence, and the straightness or curvature of the rami. The surface between 
the tomium and the lower edge of rami and gonys together is the side of the 
under mandible (fig. 5, m). The most important feature of the 

§ 50. Upper Manpis.e is the culmen (Lat. for top of anything; fig. 5, 
6). The culmen is to the upper mandible what the ridge is to the roof of a 


28 SPECIAL PARTS OF THE UPPER MANDIBLE. 


house ; it is the upper profile of the bill—the highest middle lengthwise line 
of the bill; it begins where the feathers end on the forehead, and extends 
to the tip of the upper mandible. According to the shape of the bill it may 
be straight or convex, or concave, or even somewhat ~m-shaped ; or double- 
convex, as in the tufted puffin: but in the vast majority of cases it is con- 
vex, with increasing convexity towards the tip. Sometimes it rises up into 
a thin elevated crest, as well shown in Crotophaga (gen. 126) and in the 
puffins, when the upper mandible is said to be keeled, and the culmen it- 
self to be cultrate; sometimes it is really a furrow instead of a ridge, as 
toward the end of a snipe’s bill; but generally it is simply the uppermost 
line of union of the gently convex and sloping sides of the upper mandible 
(fig. 5, a). Ina great many birds, especially those with depressed bill, as 
all the ducks, there is really no culmen; but then the median lengthwise line 
of the surface of the upper mandible, takes the place and name of culmen. 
The culmen generally stops short about opposite the proper base of the bill ; 
then the feathers sweep across its end, and downwards across the base of the 
sides of the upper mandible, usually also obliquely backwards. Variations 
in both directions from this standard are frequent; the feathers may run out 
in a point on the culmen, shortening the latter, or the culmen may run 
a way up the forehead parting the feathers; thus either in a point, as in the 
rails and gallinaceous birds, or as a broad plate of horn,.as in the coots 
and gallinules: The lower edge (double) of the upper mandible is the 
maxillary tomium, as far backward as it is hard and horny. The most con- 
spicuous feature of the upper mandible in most birds is the 

§ 51. Nasat Fossa (L. fossa, a ditch), or nasal groove (fig. 5, ¢), in 
which the nostrils open. The upper prong of the intermaxillary bone (§ 44) 
is usually separated some ways from the two lateral ones; the skinny or 
horny sheath that stretches betwixt them is usually sunken below the general 
level of the bill, especially in those birds where the prongs are long or widely 
separated ; this “ditch” is what we are about. It is called fossa when short 
and wide, with varying depth; sulcus or groove when long and narrow; the 
former is well illustrated in the gallinaceous birds; the latter in nearly 
all wading birds and many swimmers. When the prongs are soldered 
throughout, or are very short and close together, there is no (or no evident) 
nasal depression, and the nostrils open flush with the level of the bill. The 

§ 52. Nosrrins (fig. 5, d) vary in position as follows :— they are lateral 
when on the sides of the upper mandible (almost always) ; culminal when 
together on the ridge (rare) ; superior or inferior when evidently above or 
below midway betwixt culmen and tomia; they are dasal, when at the base 
of the upper mandible ; suwb-basal when near it (usual) ; median when at or 
near the middle of the upper mandible (frequent, as in cranes, geese, etc.) ; 
terminal when beyond this (very rare; and probably there are now no birds 
with nostrils at the end of the bill, except the Apferyx). ‘The nostrils are 
pervious, When open, as in nearly all birds; impervious, when not visibly 
open, as among cormorants and other birds of the same order; they are 


——-- 


THE NOSTRILS AND NASAL FOSS#—THE GAPE. 29 


perforate when there is no septum (partition) between them, so that you can 
see through them from one side of the bill to the other, as in the turkey- 
buzzard, crane, etc.; ¢inperforate when partitioned off from each other, as 
in most birds; but different ornithologists use these terms interchangeably. 
The principal shapes of the nostrils may be thus exhibited : —a line, linear 
nostrils; a line variously enlarged at either end, clavate, club-shaped, ob- 
long, ovate nostrils; a line, enlarged in the middle, oval or elliptic, nostrils ; 
this passing insensibly into the circle, rownd or circular nostrils; and the 
various kinds of more or less linear nostrils may be either longitudinal, as 
in most birds, or oblique, as in a few; almost never directly transverse 
(up and down). Rounded nostrils may have a raised border or rim; when 
this is prolonged they are called tubular, as in some of the goatsucker 
family, and in all the petrels. Usually, the nostrils are formed entirely by 
the substance surrounding them, thus, of cere, in a hawk, of softish skin, 
in a pigeon, plover or snipe, or of horn; in most birds; but often their 
contour is partly formed by a special development somewhat distinct either 
in form or texture, and this is called the nasal scale. Generally, it forms 
a sort of overhanging arch or portico, as well shown in all the gallinaceous 
birds, among the wrens, etc. A very curious case of this is seen in the 
European wryneck (lynx torqguilla), where the scale forms the floor instead 
of the roof of the nostrils. The nostrils also vary in being feathered or 
naked ; the nasal fossa being a place where the frontal feathers are apt to 
run out in points (called antiw) embracing the root of the culmen. This 
extension may completely fill and hide the fossa, as in many grouse and 
ptarmigan ; but it oftener runs for a varying distance toward, or above and 
beyond the nostrils; sometimes, similarly below them, as in a chimney- 
swift; and the nostrils may be densely feathered when there is no evident 
fossa, as in an auk. When thus truly feathered in varying degree, they are 
still open to view; another condition is, their being covered over and hidden 
by modified feathers. These are usually bristle-like (setaceous), and form 
two tufts, close-pressed, and directed forwards, as is perfectly shown in a 
crow; or the feathers may be less modified in texture, and form either two 
tufts, one over each nostril, or a single rug’, embracing the whole base of the 
upper mandible; as in nuthatches, titmice, redpoll linnets, snow buntings 
and other northern Fringillide. Bristles or feathers thus growing forwards 
are called retrorse (Li. retrorsum, backward; here used in the sense of in an 
opposite direction from the lay of the general plumage; but they should 
properly be called antrorse, 7. e., forward). The nostrils, whether culminal 
or lateral, are, like the eyes and ears, always two in number, though they 
may be united in one tube, as in the petrels. 

§ 53. Tue Gare. It only remains to consider what results from the re- 
lations of the two mandibles to each other. When the bill is opened, there 
is a cleft, or fissure between them; this is the gape or rictus (L. rictus, 
mouth in the act of grinning); but, while thus really meaning the open 
space between the mandibles, it is generally used to signify the line of their 


30 THE WINGS—THEIR BONY FRAMEWORK. 


closure. Commissure (Li. committere, to put or join together) means the 
point where the gape ends behind, that is, the angle of the mouth, where 
the opposed edges of the mandibles join each other; but as in the last ease, 
it is loosely applied to the whole line of closure, from true commissure — 
to tip of the bill. So we say, “commissure straight,” or “ commissure 
curved;” also “commissural edge” of either mandible (equivalent to 
“tomial edge”) in distinction from culmen or gonys. But it would be 
well to have more precision in this matter. Let, then, tomia (fig. 5, 7) be 
the true cutting edges of either mandible from tip to opposite base of bill 
proper, rictus (fig. 5, 7) be their edges thence to the Poinr commissure 
(fig. 5, 4) where they join when the bill is open; the L1NE commissure (fig. 
5, f) to include both when the bill is closed. The gape is straight, when 
rictus and tomia are both straight and lie in the same line; curved, sinuate, 
when they lie in the same curved or waved line; angulated, when they are 
straight, or nearly so, but do not lie in the same line, and therefore meet at 
an agle. (An important distinction. See under family /ringillide in the 
Synopsis. ) 


THE WINGS. 


§ 54. Derriirion. Pair of anterior or pectoral limbs organized for 
flight by means of dermal outgrowths. Used for this purpose by birds in 
general ; but by ostriches and their allies only as outriggers to aid running ; 
by penguins as fins for swimming under water; used also’in the latter 
capacity by some birds that fly too, as divers. Wanting in no recent birds, 
but imperfect in a few. To understand their structure we must notice 

§ 55. Tuerr Bony Frameworr. (Fig. 6.) This ordinarily consists 
of nine actually separate bones; but there are several more that fuse 
together. The arm-bone, Humerus, a single bone, reaches from shoulder to 
elbow; it is succeeded by two parallel bones, wna and radius, of about 
equal lengths, reaching from elbow to wrist, forming the forearm, cubit or 
antibrachium. The wrist (carpus) has two little knobby carpal bones, called 
scapholunar and cuneiform; very early in life there is another, the mag- 
num, that soon fuses with the hand-bone, or metacarpal. At first, this last 
is of three bones, corresponding to those of our hand that support our fore, 
middle and ring finger respectively ; afterwards they all run together. The 
one corresponding to the middle finger is much the largest of the three, and 
it supports two finger-bones (phalanges) placed end to end, just as our 
three similar finger-bones are placed one after the other at the end of their 
own hand-bone. ‘The forefinger hand-bone sticks out a little from the side 
of the principal one, and bears on its end one finger-bone (sometimes two), 
which is commonly, but wrongly, called the bird’s “thumb.” For although 
on the extreme border of the hand, it is homological with the forefinger ; 
birds have no thumb (exe. Archwopteryx, Struthio, Rhea); and no little 
finger. The third hand-bone is joined to the second, and bears no finger- 
bone. 


STRUCTURE OF THE WING. 31 


§ 56. Tse Mecuanism of these bones is admirable. The shoulder- 
joint is loose, much like ours, and allows the humerus to swing all about, 
though chiefly up and down. The elbow-joint is tight, permitting only 
bending and unbending in a horizontal line. The finger bones have scarcely 
any motion. But it is in the wrist that the singular mechanism exists. In 
the first place, the two forearm bones are fixed with relation to each other 
so that they cannot roll over each other, like ours. Stretch your arm out 
on the table; without moving the elbow, you can turn the hand over so that 
either its palm or its back lies flat on the table. It is a motion (7ofation) 
of the bones of the forearm, resulting in what is called pronation and su- 
pination. This is absent from the bird’s arm, necessarily ; for if the hand 
could thus roll over, the air striking the pinion-feathers, when the bird is 
flying, would throw them up, and render flight difficult or impossible. 
Next, the hinging of the hand upon the wrist is such, that the hand does not 
moye-up and down, like ours, in a plane perpendicular: to the plane of the 
elbow-bend, but back and forwards, in a plane horizontal to the elbow; 
it is as if we could bring our little finger and its side of the hand around to 
touch the corresponding border of the forearm. Thus, evidently, extension 
of the hand upon the wrist-joint increases and completes the unfolding 
of the wing that commenced by straightening out the forearm at the elbow. 
There is another essential feature in a bird’s wing. In the figure, 6, aBc 
represents a deep angle formed by the bones, but none such is seen upon 
the outside of the wing. This is because this triangular space is filled up 
by a fold of skin stretched over a cord that passes straight from near « to c. 
But a and c approach or recede as the wing is folded or unfolded, and a 
simple cord long enough to reach the full distance a—c would be slack in 
the folded wing; so the cord is made elastic, like an india rubber band; it 
stretches when the wing is unfolded, and contracts when the wing is shut; 
it is thus always hauled taut. The cord makes the always straightish and 
smooth anterior border of the wing. The carpus c, or the always promi- 
nent point of the anterior border, is a highly important landmark in de- 
scriptions, and should be thoroughly understood ; it is also called the “bend 
of the wing.” (See under Directions for Measurement; see also explana- 
tion of fig. 6.) 


Fig. 6, taken from a young chicken (right wing, upper surface), shows the composition 
and mechanism of a bird’s wing. A, shoulder; B, elbow; Cc, wrist or carpus; D, tip of prin- 


* 


ay) : MECHANISM OF THE WING. 


cipal (the third) finger; aB, arm; BC, forearm; CD, pinion, or hand, composed of c, carpus, 
thence to £, metacarpus or hand proper, except the bone 7, this, and Ep, being digits or fin- 
gers. a, shaft of humerus; 0, ulna; c, radius; d, scapholunar bone; e, cuneiform bone; 
these last two composing wrist or carpus proper. Now the figure (1) marks two lines 
that run to the two ends of the humerus, designating a sort of cap on either end of that bone; 
this cap is an rpipnysis;* both ends of ulna and radius show similar epiphyses, connected 
in the figure, as in case of the humerus, with the shaft by waved lines. Then, of the meta- 
carpus, g and f are the epiphyses of, respectively, the two principal metacarpal bones k, the 
third, and 7, the fourth; % and 7 have not yet coalesced together, but lie simply opposed to 
each other, whereas their epiphyses themselves, g and jf, are seen nearly fused together. 
h, which seems to be the epiphysis of 7, is not; it is a metacarpal itself (the second), 
bearing the digit, 7; it is nearly soldered with g, in which its epiphysis is already ab- 
sorbed. Later in life, & sends a plate-like process towards 7; J and k grow together; h 
grows into k and g; f and g grow into /k, with the compound result fghik, forming a single 
bone, THE METACARPAL, bearing the ‘‘thumb” phalanx 7 and the two finger phalanges m, n, 
all three of which remain permanently separate. (Observe, that # is called the Turrp meta- 
carpal, because it represents that bone in the hand of man and beasts; that in actual 
position it is second, h being first and / third; that ordinary birds have no first and no fifth 
metacarpals; and that the bone 7, though called ‘“‘thumb,” corresponds to the first joint of 
our forefinger.) d’, first finger, or thumb, the seat of the bastard wing-feathers (alula, § 58) ; 
d@', actually the second finger, but morphologically the third finger, composed of two movable 
bones m,n. a’, seat of primaries (upon whole pinion); 6b/, seat of secondaries (upon fore- 
arm); c/, seat of tertiaries (about and above elbow); a’, seat of scapularies (upon pteryla 
humeralis). This wing is shown half-spread; in closing or folding, 0 approaches a, and 
D approaches B; all nearly in the plane of the paper; and in unfolding, the elbow-joint 
B is such a perfect hinge that c cannot sink down below the level of the paper, and c is 
similarly so hinged that p cannot fly up from the same level, as the air, pressing upon 
the quill feathers a! and b’/, would tend to make it do. Observe also; b and ¢ are two 
rods connecting B and oc, and the construction of their jointing at B and c, and of their 
jointings with each other at their ends, is such, that they can slide along each other a little 
way. Now when the point c, revolving about B, approaches a in the are of a circle, the 
rod c pushes on towards d, f, g, etc., while the rod b pulls back e, 1, etc.; so that the point 
D is brought nearer B. Conversely, in opening the wing, when c recedes from 4, ¢ pulls 
back, and } pushes on, effecting recedence of p from B. So the angle aBc cannot be in- 
creased or diminished without similarly increasing or diminishing the angle scp. In other 
words, you cannot open or shut one part of the wing, without opening or shutting the other; 
it is like killing two birds with one stone, this wonderful bony mechanism for economizing 
muscular power.f 


We are now ready to examine the 


§ 57. Wine-Fratuers. These all grow upon the pteryla alaris (§ 9, 0, 
and Pl. 1, fig. 4,5). They are of two main sorts; the remiges (L. remex, a 
rower) or long quills collectively, and the coverts, tectrices (L. tectrix, 
arbitrary feminine corruption of tector, a coverer) ; to which may be added 
as a third distinct group the bastard quills (alula, or ala spuria). The 

§ 58. Anuna (L. diminutive of ala, a wing, Pl. 1, fig. 1, al), or little 
wing, is simply the bunch of feathers that grow upon the “thumb.” Highly 


*Epiphysis (Gr. epi, upon, phusis, growth). Young bones are wholly cartilaginous, or gristly; they harden 
at length by deposition in the cartilage of bone-earth. This deposit begins at certain points called ossijfic cen- 
tres. Nowin what are called ‘‘long” bones, that is, bones like a humerus, etc., there may be one such centre 
for the shaft and one upon each end of the bone. The shaft ossifies first; the ends later; and before the bone 
has completed its growth these ends remain distinct from the shaft with which they afterwards solder. These 
cartilaginous or gristly caps on the ends are called epiphyses. 

+See BERGMANN, Arch. f. Anat., 1839, 296; COUES, Amer. Nat. v, 1870, 513. 


— - |. — 


WING-COVERTS AND REMIGES. 33 


important as it is in a morphological point of view, it is taken into little 
account in practical ornithology, unless when largely modified in form, con- 
spicuous in color, or bearing special organs, as claws, spurs, etc. It 
strengthens, and defends, and adds to the symmetry of the anterior outer 
border of the wing. (The student must carefully distinguish the use of 
the word spurious in this connection from its application to a certain state 
of the first primary —see § 62.) 

§59. THe Wrvyc-coverts are conveniently divided into the upper (tec- 
trices superiores) and under (tect. inferiores); they include all the small 
feathers that clothe the wings, extending a varying distance along the bases 
of the remiges (§60). The ordinary disposition and division of the upper 
coverts is as follows :— There is one set, rather long and stiffish, close-pressed 
over the bases of the outer nine or ten remiges, covering these, in general, 
about as far as their structure is plumulaceous. These spring from the hand 
or pinion (§ 55) and are the upper primary coverts (Pl. 1. fig. 1, pc): they 
are ordinarily the least conspicuous of any. All the rest of the upper coverts 
are SECONDARY, and spring mostly from the forearm ; they are considered in 
three groups, or rows. The greater coverts (Pl. 1, fig. 1, gsc) are the first, 
outermost, longest row, covering the bases of most of the remiges except 
the first nine or ten; the median coverts (Pl. 1, fig. 1, msc), are a next 
row, shorter, but still almost always forming a conspicuous series. All the 
rest of the secondary coverts pass under the general name of lesser coverts 
(Pl. 1, fig. 1, 4c). The greater coverts have furnished a very important z00- 
logical character: for in all Passeres they are not more than half as long as 
the remiges they cover, while the reverse is believed to be the case in nearly 
all other birds. The under coverts have the same general disposition as the 
upper: but they are all like each other, have less distinction into rows or 
series, and for practical purposes generally pass under the common name of 
under wing-coverts; and since, when the wing is strikingly colored under- 
neath, it is these feathers, and not the remiges, that are highly or variously 
tinted, the expression “ wing below,” or “under surface of the wing” gener- 
ally refers to them more particularly. We should distinguish, however, 
from the under wing-coverts in general, the axillary feathers, or axillars (L. 
axilla, arm-pit). These are the innermost of the under wing-coverts ; al- 
most always longer, stiffer, and otherwise distinguishable from the rest; in 
ducks, for example, and many waders, they take on remarkable development. 

§ 60. (a.) Tue Remicss (PI. 1, fig. 1, 6, s, and ¢) mainly give the size, 
shape, and general character to the wing, and are its most important fea- 
tures; they represent the whole of its posterior outline, most of its surface, 
and most of its outer and inner borders. Taken collectively, they form a 
flattened surface for striking the air; this surface may be quite flat, as in 
birds with long pointed wings that cut the air like oar-blades; generally it 
is a little concave underneath, and correspondingly convex above ; this con- 
cayo-convexity varying insensibly within certain limits. It is usually great- 
est in birds with a short rounded wing, as in the gallinaceous order. Two 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 5 


b4 NUMBER AND SHAPE OF REMIGES. 


extremes of the mode of flight result. The short, round wing confers a 
heavy, powerful, cutting flight, for short distances, with a whirring noise, 
produced by quick vibrations of the wing: birds that fly thus are almost 
always thickset and heavy. The long, pointed wing gives a light, airy, 
skimming flight, indefinitely prolonged, with little or no noise, as the wing 
beats are more deliberate: birds of this style of wing are generally trim 
and elegant. These, of course, are merely generalizations, mixed and ob- 
scured in every degree in actual bird-life. Thus the humming-bird, with 
long pointed wings, whirs them fastest of all birds; so fast that the eye can- 
not follow the strokes, and merely perceives a mist on each side of the bird. 
The combination of a pointed with a somewhat concave shape of wing is a 
remarkably strong one; it results in a rapid, vigorous, whistling flight, as in 
a pigeon or duck. An ample wing, as it is called, that is, one long as well 
as broad, without being pointed, is seen in the herons; it confers a slow and 
somewhat lumbering, but still strong, flight. The longest winged birds are 
found among the swimmers, as albatrosses ; but here the extreme length is 4 
largely produced by the length of the humerus ; some land birds, as swallows, 
swifts, humming-birds, and other fissirostral birds, would have a still longer 
wing, were not the humerus extraordinarily short. The shortest wings 
(among birds with perfect remiges), occur in the lowest swimmers, as among 
the auks and divers, and in the gallinaceous birds. The various special 
shapes of wings are too numerous and too insensibly gradated to be men- 
tioned here. The mechanics of ordinary flying are probably now under- 
stood,* though the “way of an eagle in the air” was an enigma to the wise 
man of old. But the sailing of some birds for an indefinite period through 
the air, up as well as down, without visible motion of the wings, remains a 
stumbling-block ; the flight of the turkey vulture is yet unexplained, I ven- 
ture to affirm. 

(b.) The number of remiges ranges from sixteen, in the humming-bird, 
to upwards of fifty, in the albatross. This statement is exclusive of the 
penguins, in which there are no true remiges. “The remiges subserve flight 
in nearly all existing birds except these last, the ostriches and their allies, 
and the great auk, Alcea cmpennis—if indeed this bird still lives. 

(c.) Of the shape of remiges there is little to be said, they are, with few 
exceptions, so uniform. They are the stiffest, strongest, most truly penna- 
eeous (§ 4) of a bird’s feathers ; they have no evident hyporhachis (§ 3, a) ; 
they are generally lanceolate, that is, taper regularly and gradually to a 
rounded point. Sometimes one or both webs are incised or attenuate 
towards the end, that is, they narrow abruptly ; this is also called emargina- 
tion. (See fig.110.) The tips of the remiges may be squarely or obliquely 
cut off, as it were, or nicked in various ways. Except in the case of a few 
of the innermost remiges, their outer vexillum (§ 3, a) is always narrower 


*The student should not fail to consult, in this connection, M. Marey’s ‘‘ Lectures on the Phenomena of 
Flight,” Smithsonian Report for 1869, p. 226. (Translated from Revue des Cours Scientifiques.) 


PRIMARIES. oo 


than the inner, and its barbs stand out less from the rhachis (§3, a). Rem- 
iges are divided into three classes, according to their seat; and in this is in- 
volved one of the most important considerations in practical ornithology, of 
which the student must make himself master. The three classes are 1, the 
primaries; 2, the secondaries; 3, the tertiaries. 

§ 61. Tue Primaries (PI. 1, fig. 1, 0) are those remiges which grow upon 
the pinion, or hand- and finger-bones (fig. 6, cp). Whatever the total num- 
ber of remiges may be, zn all birds with remiges the primaries are either NINE 
or TEN in number, as far as is known. The albatross and the humming-bird 
(§ 60, b) both have ten. All birds, probably, below the highest, the oscine 
Passeres, have ten. Among Oscines, there are nine or ten indifferently ; and 
just this difference of one primary more or less formas one of the most marked 
distinctions between some families of that suborder. So the tenth feather in 
a bird’s wing, counting from the outside, is a sort of crucial test in many 
cases ; if it be first secondary, the bird is one thing; if it be last primary, the 
bird is another; the necessity, therefore, of determining which it is, becomes 
evident. It is, of course, always possible to settle the question by striking 
at the roots of the remiges and seeing how many are seated on the pinion ; 
but this generally involves some defacing of a specimen, and ordinarily there 
is an easier way of determining. Hold the wing half spread ; then, in nearly 
all Oscines, the primaries come sloping down on one side, and the secondaries 
similarly on the other, to form, where they meet, a reéntrant angle in the 
general contour of the posterior border of the wing ; the feather that occupies 
this notch is the one we are after, and unluckily is sometimes last primary, 
and sometimes first secondary. But primaries are, so to speak, emphatic, 
self-asserting, italicized remiges, stiff, strong, obstinate; while seconda- 
ries are whispering, retiring remiges in brevier, limber, weak, and yielding. 
This difference in character is almost always shown by something in their 
general shape, impossible to describe, but which the student will soon learn 
to detect. Let the reader examine plate 1, fig. 1, where 2 marks the 9 pri- 
maries of a sparrow’s wing, and s indicates the secondaries ; he will see a dif- 
ference at once. The primaries express themselves, though with constantly 
diminishing force, to the last; then the secondaries immediately begin to 
tell a different tale. Among North American birds, the only ones with 
NINE primaries are the families Motucillide, Alaudide, Sylvicolide, Hirun- 
dinide, Fringillide, Icteride, part of the Vireonidw, and the genus Am- 
pelis.* The condition of the first primary, whether 

§ 62. Spurious or not, is often of great help in this determination. The 
first primary is said to be spurious (compare § 58) when it is very short ; 
say a third, or less than a third, of the length of the second primary. A 


*This really has ten; but thie first is so small and so out of position that it is only theoretically accounted 
as such, and would not be so considered by the student. I should add, that recent researches of Prof. Baird’s 
tend to show that al/ supposed nine-primaried birds have really ten; but only an expert ornithologist could 
find the additional one in question; and it need not be taken into account for present purposes. (See expla- 
nation of Pl.1. fig. 1, qu.) Nitzsch says the grebes have 11 primaries; this may be confirmed. 


36 SECONDARIES AND TERTIARIES—THE TAIL. 


spurious first primary only occurs in certain ten-primaried Oscines. It is 
evident, therefore, that the finding of this short primary is equivalent to 
determining the presence of ten primaries; but, on the other hand, not 


finding it does not prove nine primaries; the count must be made in all. 


cases where the first primary is more than one-third as long as the second. 

§ 63. Tur Seconparties (PI. 1, fig. 1, s) are those remiges that are seated 
on the forearm (fig. 6, Bc) ; they vary in number from six upward, the pre- 
cise greatest number probably not ascertained, unless it be the forty of the 
albatross. They have the peculiarity of being actually attached to one of 
the bones of the forearm (ulna) which the other remiges are not. If you 
examine an ulna, you will see a row of little points showing the attachment. 
The secondaries present no special features necessary to describe in the pres- 
ent connection. They are enormously developed in the argus pheasant. 

‘§ 64. (a.) Tue Terrtiaries (Pl. 1, fig. 1, ¢) are, properly, the remiges 
that grow upon the upper arm (humerus); but they are not evident in most 
birds, and the two or three innermost secondaries, that grow upon the very 
elbow, and are commonly different from the rest, in form or color, or both, 
pass under the name of tertiaries. So also some of the scapular feathers 
(§ 38, and PI. 1, fig. 1, scp), when long or otherwise conspicuous, are called 
tertiaries. But there is an evident and proper distinction. Scapulars are 
feathers of the pteryla humeralis (§ 9, 6); while tertiaries, whether seated 
on the elbow or higher up, are the innermost remiges of the pteryla alaris 
(§ 9, 6). They are oftener called “tertials,” for short, though the other 
name is more correct, besides being formed in analogy with the names of 
the other remiges. Tertiaries do not often afford conspicuous or important 
characters; but in many birds they are very long and flowing. ‘This is 
particularly the case in most sharp-winged wading birds; and, in fact, is 
mainly confined to birds with such a wing. 

(b.) Occasionally, any of the wing feathers take on remarkable special 
developments, and such is particularly the case with the tertials and second- 
ary upper coverts ; but it would be superfluous to particularize these here. 
The wing rarely produces anything but feathers ; sometimes, however, offen- 
sive weapons are found, as in the horny spur-like process of the pinion of 
the spur-winged thrush, Zurdus dactylopterus, the spur-winged goose 
(Plectropterus), spur-winged pigeon (Didunculus), several plovers ( Chet- 
tusia, etc.), the jacanas (Parra), etc., and the one or two claws of the 
ostriches and their allies, as well as of the extinct Archwopteryx. But we 
have no illustration of these outgrowths among North American birds. 


ene? Ag 


§ 65. Time was when birds flew about with long bony and fleshy tails, 
with the feathers inserted in a row on either side (distichous) like the hairs 
of a squirrel’s. But we have changed all that. Now the bones are few 
(generally about nine in number), and short, not projecting beyond the gen- 


——- 


TAIL-COVERTS AND RECTRICES. 37 


eral plumage, and the last one, called coccyx or vomer (Li. vomer, a plough- 
share), is large and singularly shaped, and the feathers are stuck around this 
like the blades upon a lady’s fan. The whole bony and muscular apparatus 
is familiar to every one as the “pope’s nose” of the Christmas turkey; and 
in descriptive ornithology the word “tail” refers solely to the feathers, all of 
which grow upon the pteryla caudalis (§9, b). The tail feathers, like those 
of the wings, are of two sorts; coverts (tectrices) and rectrices (Ll. rectrix, a 
female ruler or governess ; here in the sense of a steerer or rudder, because 
they guide the bird’s flight) ; these correspond precisely to the wing-coverts 
(§ 59) and the remiges (§ 60,a@). The 

§ 66. Tarm-coverts are the numerous, generally rather small, in compar- 
ison with rectrices, feathers that overlie and underlie the rectrices, defending 
their bases, and contributing to the firmness and symmetry of the tail. An 
obvious division of them is into an upper (tect. superiores) and under (tect. 
inferiores) set. Neither set is EVER wholly wanting; but sometimes one or 
the other, and particularly the upper, is very short, and not distinguishable 
from the general plumage of notzum (§ 38), as in the ruddy duck (genus 
270). The upper coyerts are the most variable in size, shape and texture. 
While usually shorter than the under, and reaching only from a fourth to a 
half of the length of the rectrices, sometimes they take an extraordinary 
development, project far beyond the rectrices, and form the bird’s chiefest 
ornament. The gorgeous argus-eyed train of the peacock is upper tail 
coyerts, not rectrices ; the elegant plumes of the paradise trogon (Pharo- 
macrus mocinno), several times longer than the bird itself, are likewise 
coverts. The under tail coverts are more uniform in development, and 
very rarely, as in some of the storks, become plumes of any considerable 
pretensions. Ordinarily, they are about half as long as the tail, but fre- 
quently reach its whole length, and form a dense tuft, as in the ducks. I do 
not now recall an instance of their projecting noticeably beyond the tail. 
It is to this bundle of under tail-coverts that the word crissum (§ 39) prop- 
erly applies. The 

§ 67. Recrrices or true tail feathers can almost never be confounded 
with the coverts: they are, like the remiges, stiff, well-pronounced feathers, 
pennaceous to the very base of the vexilla, wanting after-shafts (at least 
evident. after-shafts, in the great majority of cases), and have one vexillum 
wider than the other, except, sometimes, the central pair. They are always 
in pairs: that is, there is the same number on each side of the middle line of 
the tail, and their number, consequently, is always an even one. The ex- 
ceptions to this rule are so few (and then only among birds with the higher 
numbers of tail feathers) that they are probably to be regarded as simple 
anomalies, from accidental arrest of a feather. They are imbricated over 
each other in this way :—The central pair are highest, and lie with both their 
webs over the next feather on either side (the inner web of either of these 
middle two underlying or overlying the inner web of the other); and they 
all thus successively overlie each other, so that they would form a pyramid 


38 SHAPE AND NUMBER OF RECTRIGCES. 


were they thick, not flat. This disposition is perceived at once in the accom- 
panying diagram, where it will also be seen that spreading of the tail is 
simply the greater divergence of a from 6, OU . 
while closing the tail is bringing a and 6 to- 
gether directly under c. The act is accom- 
plished by certain muscles that pull on either ea Bios 
side at the bases of the quills collectively : a iz 
they are the same that pull the whole tail to one side or the other, just as 
tiller-ropes of a boat’s rudder work on that instrument. The general 

§ 68. SHapr of a rectrix, is shown in Pl. 1, fig. 5. The feather is some- 
what clubbed, or oblong, widening gradually and nearly regularly towards 
the tip, where it is gently rounded. But the obvious departures from this 
are various. <A rectrix broad to the very tip, and there cut squarely off, is 
truncate; one such cut diagonally off is incised, especially when, as usually 
happens, the outline of the cut portion is concave. <A Jinear rectrix is very 
narrow, with parallel sides; a lanceolate one is broader at the base, and 
tapers regularly and gradually to a point. A noticeably pointed rectrix is 
acute; when the pointing is produced by abrupt contraction towards the tip 
it is called acuminate, as in woodpeckers generally. A very long, slender, 
more or less linear feather is said to be filamentous, as the lateral one of a 
barn-swallow or of most terns, the middle one of a tropic bird (gen. 278), 
etc. When such protrude suddenly and far beyond all the rest, I call them 
long-exserted, after an analogous term in botany. An unusually stiff feather 
is called rigid, as in woodpeckers and other birds that use the tail as a prop 
or support. When the rhachis projects beyond the vexilla, the feather is 
spinose, or better, mucronate (Li. spina, a prickle, or mucro, a point; e. g., 
chimney-swift, fig. 123). The bob-o’-link (gen. 87) and sharp-tailed finch 
(fig. 84) both approximate towards this condition. When the vexilla are 
wavy-edged, the feather is crenulate (fine example in Plotus, gen. 276). 
While the great majority of rectrices are straight, some are curved, either 
outwards or inwards, in the horizontal plane; those curved in a perpen- 
dicular plane are arched or vaulted—the latter particularly when the vanes 
are concavo-convex in transverse section. The typical 

§ 69. Number of rectrices is TWELVE. This holds in the vast majority 
of birds. It is so uniform throughout the great group Oscines, that the 
rare exceptions are perfectly anomalous; in the other group of Passeres 
(Clamatores) it is usually twelve, but sometimes ten. Among Sérisores 
there are never more than éen rectrices. In Scansores, the number varies 
from eight to twelve; eight is rare, as in the genus Crofophaga (no. 126) ; 
other cuckoos have ten; the woodpeckers have APPARENTLY fen, but there 
are really ¢éwelve, of which the outer pair on each side are very small, almost 
rudimentary, hidden betwixt the bases of the second and third pair (see Key, 
III). Birds of prey have about twelve. Pigeons (all ours at least) have 
twelve or fourteen. In birds below these the number begins to increase ; 
thus directly, among the grouse, we may find up to twenty, as in the great 


FORMS OF TAILS. 39 


cock of the plains; but in a few singular types (Zinamide) of the order 
Galline, there are none, or only rudimentary ones. Among water birds the 
numbers vary so that they are usually of only generic, and sometimes only 
specific, importance. Those swimmers with long, well-formed tails, as 
the Longipennes, and particularly the gull family, and some of the ducks, 
have the fewest; here there are twelve, sometimes fourteen, rarely sixteen ; 
while those with short, soft tails have the most, as sixteen, eighteen, twenty ; 
and, as in the pelicans, twenty-two, or even twenty-four—the last being 
about the maximum, although in one genus of penguins (Apfenodytes) there 
are thirty-two or more. Swimmers again, furnish birds with no rectrices, 
the whole grebe family (Podicipide) being thus distinguished. So rectrices 
run among birds from none to over thirty. The typical 

§ 70. SHare or THE Tarn, as a whole, is the Fan. The modifications, 
however, are as many as, and greater and more varied than, those of the 
wing, at the same time that they are susceptible of better definition, and 
have received special names that must be learned. Taking the simplest 
ease, where the rectrices are all of the same length, we have what is called 
the even, square or truncate tail, from which nearly all the others are simple 
departures in one way or another. A square, or nearly so, tail with the 
two central feathers long-exserted (§ 68) is common: we see it in all jaegers 
(gen. 280), in Momotus (gen. 112) and especially in Phaéthon (gen. 278). 
The most frequent departure from the even tail is by gradual successive 
shortening of the rectrices from the pair next the middle to the exterior 
ones; and this shortening is called gradation. Gradation is a generic term, 
implying such shortening in any degree. Precisely, it should mean shorten- 
ing each successive pair of rectrices by the same amount; say, each pair 
being half an inch shorter than the next. But this exactness is not often 
preserved. When the feathers shorten by more and more, we have the true 
rounded tail, probably the commonest form among birds: tlius, let the grada- 
tion between the middle and next pair be just appreciable, and then increase 
regularly, to half an inch between the next to the outermost and the lateral 
pair. The opposite gradation, by less and less shortening, gives the wedge- 
shaped or cuneate tail; it is well shown in the magpie, where, as in many 
other birds, the central feathers would be called long-exserted, were all the 
rest of the same length as the outer. A cuneate tail, especially with narrow 
acute feathers, is also called podtnied, in contradistinction to rounded, as in 
the sprig-tailed duck (gen. 253). ‘The generic opposite of the gradated tail 
is the forked; where the lateral feathers increase in length from the ceutral 
to the outer pair. The least appreciable forking is called emargination, and 
such a tail is emarginate; when it is more marked, as for instance, say an 
inch of forking in a tail six inches long, the tail is truly forked. The de- 
grees of forking are so various and intimately connected, that they are usu- 
ally expressed by qualified terms: as, “ slightly forked,” “deeply forked,” 
ete. The deeper forkings are usually accompanied by a more or less jila- 
mentous elongation of the outer pair of rectrices: as in the barn swallow, 


40 FORMS OF TAILS—THE FEET. 


some flycatchers, most of the terns, etc., etc. It would be advisable to have 
a term to express such extreme condition, which I shall call forficate, when 
the depth of the fork is equal to, or greater than, the length of the shortest 
(middle) pair of feathers ; it occurs among our birds in the genera Milvulus 
(no. 104), Sterna (291), and elsewhere. Double-forked or double-rounded 
tails are not uncommon; they result from combination of both gradation 
and forking, in this way : — Let the middle feathers remain constant, and 
the next two or three pairs progressively increase in length, then the rest 
successively decrease ; evidently, the tail is forked centrally, gradated exter- 
nally : this is the double rounded form; it is shown in the genera Myiadestes 
(no. 52) and Anous (294). Now with middle feathers as before, let the 
next pair or two decrease in length, and the rest progressively increase to 
the outermost: then we have the double-forked, a common shape among 
sandpipers. In the latter case, the forking rarely amounts to more than 
simple emargination, and generally is really little more than simple protru- 
sion of the middle pair of rectrices in an otherwise slightly forked tail; and 
in neither case is the gradation either way often great. 

Various shapes of tails, which the student will readily name from the 
foregoing paragraph, are illustrated in figs. 17, 19, 29, 30, 32, 54, 57, 68, 
73, 76, 84, 98, 106, 117, 120, 121, 126, 133, 135, 187, 144, 145, 147-52, 
177, 206, 214. Ishould also allude to the folded tail of the barn-yard fowl 
(Gallus bankivi, var.) a very familiar but rare form. One of the most 
beautiful and wonderful of all the shapes of the tail is illustrated by the 
male of the famous lyre-bird (Menura superba), shown in the figure at the 
end of this Introduction. 

It should be remembered that to determine the shape, the tail should be 
viewed nearly closed ; for spreading will obviously make a square tail round, 
an emarginate one square, etc. I append a diagram of the principal forms. 


Fig. 7.— Diagram of shapes of tail. 


Fic. 7. adc, rounded; aec, gradate; adic, cuneate-gradate; alc, cuneate; abc, double- © 
rounded; feg, square; fhg, emarginate; fneog, double-emarginate ; kim, forked; kem, deeply 
forked; kbm, forficate. 


THe FEET. 


§ 71. In atu Birps, the posterior extremities are organized for progres- 
sion; for walking, hopping, or running on land, in all; but a few of the 


BONES OF LEG AND FOOT. 41 


lowest birds can scarcely walk; for perching on trees, etc., in the vast 
majority, most of which hop about there, and many of which climb or 
scramble in every imaginable way, with or without the aid of the tail; for 
swimming on the water, or diving, in a great many; for grasping and hold- 
ing detached objects in some, as the parrots, birds of prey, and a few 
others. The modifications of the leg and foot are more numerous, more 
diverse, and more important, in their bearing upon taxonomy, than those 
of either bill, wing or tail. 

§ 72. (a.) THE BONY FRAMEWORK. (Fig. 8, somewhat diagrammatic il- 
lustration, taken from a loon’s right leg.) This ordinarily consists of twenty 
bones, of which fourteen are toe-bones, one is a little bone connecting the 
hind toe with the rest of the foot, one a little bone in front of the knee- 

joint, and four are the principal bones from the hip-joint down to the roots 
' of the toes. The first is the Jemur or thigh-bone, a, reaching from hip a, to 
knee B; a large terete bone, corresponding to the humerus of the wing. 
Then come two bones, 0, the ¢ébia, or principal (and inner) leg-bone, and c, 
the fibula, or lesser (and outer) leg-bone; both these joint with the femur 
above, and in front of this, the knee-joint, there is in many or most birds a 


Zt +f 


Fig. 8. Bones of leg and foot. 


little knee-pan, or knee-cap: the patella, p. The tibia runs to the heel, o, 
and there has an enlarged extremity to joint with the next bone: but the 
fibula is only a slender spicula not reaching the heel, but ending in a sharp 
point part way down the leg, and partly soldered with the tibia. It is only 
in a few of the lowest birds, that the tibia runs up to a point above the knee- 
joint, as shown in this figure: ordinarily, it ends at the knee itself. The 
portion of the leg represented by the femur, or from 4 to B, is the THIGH; 
that represented by tibia and fibula is the Lee or crus; leg proper, there- 
fore, is from knee to heel, or B to c only. 
KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 6 


« 


42 BONES OF LEG AND FOOT. 


(b.) Now a bird’s legs are not like ours, separate from the body from the 
hip downward, but are’ for a variable distance inclosed within the general 
skin of the body. The freedom is greatest among the higher birds, and es- 
pecially rapacious birds, that use the feet for grasping, and least in the low- 
est swimming birds: the entire range of enclosure of the leg, is from part 
way up the thigh down almost to the very point c, as in the case of the loon 
and other diving swimmers. And in no birds, is the knee, B, seen outside 
the general contour of the plumage; it must be looked or felt for among the 
feathers, and in most prepared skins will not be found at all. Practically, 
it is a landmark of no consequence in determining genera and species, 
though of the utmost importance in primary classification; the student may 
for awhile ignore its existence if he chooses. The first joiné that sticks out 
from the plumage is the mrEEL, C; and this is what, in loose popular terms, 
is called “knee,” upon the same erroneous notion that the wrist of a horse’s 
foreleg is called “ knee.” Just so people call a bird’s crus the “thigh,” and 
disregard the thigh altogether. There is no need of this confusion; and 
even without the slightest anatomical knowledge, any one can tell knee from 
heel at a glance, whatever their position relative to the body; for knees 
ALWAYS bend forward, and heels anways bend backward. 

(c.) This point c corresponds to the point c in fig. 6 of the wing. There 
we found two little carpal bones, or wrist-bdnes, intervening between fore- 
arm and hand, or metacarpus ; but adult birds have no such actual bones in- 
tervening between tibia and the next bone, d, the MnraTarsus. So there is 
no tarsus proper; metatarsus hinges directly upon tibia, or foot upon leg, 
without true ankle-bones ; that is, the foot-bone itself makes the ankle-joint, 
with the leg, at the point c, heel. (Theoretically, however, there are tarsal 
bones: for there is an epiphysis (§ 56*) at the lower end of the tibia, and 
an epiphysis at the upper end of the metatarsal bone; afterwards fused with 
these bones respectively. One or the other, or both of these are held by 
different anatomists to be tarsal bones; more particularly, the one that fuses 
with the metatarsus ; which last, therefore, represents both tarsus and meta- 
tarsus, and is on this account called tarso-metatarsus.*) 


*This is as usually taught. But Gegenbaur has shown that these so-called epiphyses are true tarsal 
bones. He represents, in the chick at the ninth day of embryonic life, two bones, an upper and an under, the 
former afterward anchylosing with the tibia, the latter with the metatarsus, leaving the ankle-joint between 
them, as in reptiles. Morse, who has studied the embryos of several species, goes still further: he shows that 
the upper tarsal bone of Gegenbaur is really two bones, corresponding to the tibiale and fibulare, or astrag- 
alus and calcaneum; these subsequently co-ossify to form the upper one seen by Gegenbaur, and finally 
co-ossify with the tibia to form the bitrochlear condyle characteristic of this bone in Aves. The distal tarsal 
ossicle he believes to be the centrale of reptiles. Wyman discovers that the so-called process of the astraga- 
lus has a distinct ossification, and Morse interprets it as the intermedium. (Am. Nat. vy, 1871, 524.) In the 
light of these late discoveries, the homologies of the bird’s carpus and metacarpus become clearer. We haye 
seen (§ 55, 56, fig. 6) that birds retain throughout life two distinct proximal carpal bones (called scapholunar 
and cuneiform, but better named simply radiale and ulnare), and that in early life they have a distal bone, 
that was mentioned as the magnum, but appears to be centrale, corresponding to the distal tarsal ossicle, 
just as the ulmare and radiale do to the proximal tarsal ossicles. Morse has even found in the carpus of 
birds, two more ossicles, the homology of which remains undetermined. But what we now know, renders it 
almost certain, that the so-called epiphyses upon the proximal ends of the metacarpals, are not epiphyses, 
any more than the so-called tarsal epiphyses; and that the metacarpus of birds is really carpo-metacarpus, 
just as the metatarsus is actually tarso-metatarsus. This view is strengthened by the fact that the metacarpal 
bones of higher vertebrates, except the first, ordinarily lack epiphyses. 


MECHANISM OF THE LEG AND FOOT. 43 


(d.) The principal metatarsal bone, d, representing the distance c D, be- 
tween the lower end of the leg and the roots of the toes, really consists of 
three bones fused in one; these are partly distinct only in the penguins, 
among recent birds; but in all birds except ostriches, the original distinction 
is indicated by three prongs or claws at the lower end of the bone: for joint- 
ing with the three principal toes. The other toe, almost always the hinder 
oue, when it is present, is hinged on the metatarsus in an entirely different 
way; by means of a separate little rudimentary bone, the ACCESSORY META- 
TARSAL, 7, in the figure, in dotted outline. It is of various shapes and sizes, 
and variable in position up and down the lower part of the metatarsus. Or- 
dinarily it is too small, or too flat, to be seen from the outside of the 
foot at all; it has no true jointing with the main metatarsal, but is simply 
pressed flat against it, and more or less soldered, much as the lower part of 
the fibula is with the tibia. It may be wanting in some birds with no hind 
toe; in others, without hind toe, it still persists. 

(e.) In spite of the anatomical proprieties involved, this part of the leg, 
from heel to bases of toes,—from c to p—represented really by the meta- 
tarsal bone and its accessory, has gained a name now so firmly established, 
that it would be finical to attempt to change it in ordinary descriptive writ- 
ings. This is THE TARSUS; we shall soon see how important a thing it is. 

(f.) The toes or digits consist of a certain number of bones placed end 
to end, all jointed upon each other, and the first series upon the metatarsal 
or its accessory. Lach of these individual bones is called a phalanx (pl. 
phalanges) or internode (because intervening between the joints or nodes of 
the toes). The furthermost one of each toe almost invariably bears a claw. 
They are of yarious lengths relative to each other, and of variable number 
in the same or different toes; but these points, and others, are fully consid- 
ered farther on. We may here glance at the 

§ 73. (a.) Mecuanism nee The hip is a ball-and-socket joint, per- 
mitting roundabout as well as fore-and-aft movements of the thigh. The 
knee is usually a hinge-joint only, allowing back and forward motion of the 
leg; so constructed that the forward movement is never carried beyond a 
right line with the leg, while the backward is so free that the leg may be 
completely doubled under the thigh. In some birds there are also rotatory 
movements at the knee, very evident in certain swimmers. The ankle or 
heel-joint is a strict hinge, and sometimes a wonderful one, too, taken in 
connection with the action of certain muscles that move the tarsus. For in 
some birds the interior structure of the joint is such that it locks the tarsus, 
when straightened out upon the leg, in that position, so firmly that some 
voluntary muscular effort is needed to overcome the resistance; such birds 
can sleep standing up on one leg, and this is the design of the mechanism. 
The ankle permits just the opposite bendings to those of the knee; the tar- 
sus cannot pass backward out of a straight line with the leg; but can come 
forward until the toes nearly touch the eee The jointing of the toes on 
the metatarsal bone is peculiar; for the hinge-surfaces of the metatarsal 


; an 


44 PLUMAGE OF THE LEG. 


prongs have such mutual obliquity, that when the toes are brought forward, 
at right angles or thereabouts with the tarsus, they spread themselves in 
the action, and the open foot, with its diverging toes, are pressed on the 
ground or against the water; and when the toes are bent around in the other 
direction, they close together more or less parallel with each other, besides 
being bent or flexed, each one at its several nodes. The mechanism: is best 
illustrated in the swimmers, which must present a broad surface to the water 

in giving the backward stroke, and bring the foot forward closed with only 
an edge opposed to the water. It is carried to such extreme in the loon, 
that the digit marked 2¢ in the figure lies below and behind 3¢, as there 
shown; in most birds with the foot in much the same position relative to the 
tarsus, 2¢ would appear above 3¢ (compare other figures of feet). It is 
probably least marked in birds of prey, that clutch with all the toes spread. 
The individual toe joints are all simple hinges. 

(b.) In ordinary hopping, walking, perching, etc., only the toes rest upon 
or grasp the support, and c is more or less perpendicularly above p. This 
resting of the toes is complete for all the anterior ones; for the hind toe it 
varies according to the position and length of the latter from complete 
resting like the others, to mere touching of the tip, and finally to not 
even this; the hind toe is then said to be functionless. But the lowest 
birds cannot stand upright on their toes at all; these rest with the tarsus 
horizontal, and the heel c touching the ground ; moreover, in all these birds, 
the tail affords additional support, making a tripod with the legs, as in the 
kangaroo. These birds might be called plantigrade, in strict anatomical 
analogy with the beasts so called; the others are digitigrade, quite as analo- 
gously ; but there are no birds, that, like horses and cows, walk on the ends . 
of their toes, or toe-nails. <A bird’s ordinary walking or running, corres- 
‘ponds exactly with ours, as far as the mechanics of motion are concerned ; 
but its hopping, as it is called, is really leaping, both legs being brought 
forward at once. Nearly all birds down to Galline, leap when on the 
ground ; all others walk or run, advancing one leg after the other. Leaping 
is thus really distinctive of the Jnsessores; though many of them, as tit- 
larks, shore larks, meadow larks, many terrestrial sparrows, blackbirds, 
crows, turkey buzzards, and others, including all the pigeon family, walk 
instead of leaping. 

§ 74. Tue Priumace of the legs varies within wide limits. In general, 
the leg is feathered to the heel, and the tarsus and toes are naked. The 
thigh is aways feathered. The crus is feathered in all Jnsessores (with 
rare exceptions), and in all Natatores without exception; in the loon family 
the feathering extends on as well as to the heel-joint. It is among the Cur- 
sores, or walkers, and especially wading birds, that the crus is most naked ; 
here it may be denuded half way up. A few waders—among ours, chiefly 
in the snipe family —have the crus apparently clothed to the joint, but this 
is in most if not ail cases due to the length of the feathers, for probably no 
one of them has the crural pteryla itself extended to the joint. The crural 


PROPORTIONS AND COVERING OF THE LEG. 45 


feathers are almost always short and inconspicuous; sometimes long and 
flowing, as in nearly all the hawks, our tree-cuckoos, etc. The éarsus in the 
vast majority of birds is naked of feathers; it is so in all the higher Jnses- 
sores, with very few exceptions (as in the swift family, for instance), in all 
waders, without exception, and in all swimmers with the single exception of 
the frigate bird (Tachypetes, gen. 277), and here the feathering is not com- 
plete. The Raptores and the Galline give us the most feathered tarsi. Thus 
feathering is the rule, among the owls (Sérigide) ; frequent (either partial 
or complete) in hawks and eagles, as the genera Aquila (161) Archibu- 
teo (160) and Buteo (159). All our grouse, as distinguished from the 
turkeys and partridges of the same order, have the tarsus more or less 
feathered. The foes are feathered in few birds; but we have fine examples 
of this, in the snowy owl, and all the ptarmigan. Partial feathering of the 
tarsus is often continued further down to or on the toes by sparse modi- 
fied bristly feathers ; this is well illustrated in the barn owl. When incom- 
plete, the feathering is usually wanting Jehind and below; being almost 
invariably continuous above with the crural feathering. But, in that spirit 
of delight that birds show in proving every rule we make about them by 
furnishing exceptions to it, the tarsus is sometimes partly feathered without 
connection with the general plumage above. <A curious example is afforded 
by the bank swallow, with its little tuft of feathers at the base of the hind 
toe; and some varieties of the barnyard fowl sprout monstrous leggings of 
feathers from the side of the tarsus. 

§ 75. Tae Lenern or tHe Lee, compared with the size of the bird, is 
extremely variable. A thrush or a sparrow probably represents about an 
average in this respect. The shortest-legged known bird is probably the 
frigate, just mentioned ; a yard long, more or less, it has a tibia not half as 
long as the skull, and a tarsus under an inch. The leg is very short in the 
order Sfrisores, as among humming-birds, swifts, goatsuckers, kingfishers, 
trogons, etc.; while the swallows, of Oscines, are like swifts in this 
respect. It is likewise pretty short among Scansores. The leg is also 
“short” in all swimmers; the femur especially being very short, and the 
tarsus likewise ; while the toes, bearing their broad webs, are longer. The 
leg Jengthens in lower Jnsessores, as most hawks, and especially among 
some of the terrestrial pigeons. It is still longer among the walkers; and 
reaches its maximum among the waders, especially the larger kinds, as fla- 
mingoes, cranes, storks and herons, among all of which it is accompanied 
by corresponding increase in length of the neck. Probably the longest 
legged of all birds for its size is the stilt (H/imantopus,197). It is seen 
from the above, that, taking the tarsus alone, as an index of the whole com- 
parative length of the leg, this is in the frigate bird under one thirty-sixth 
of the total length; a flamingo, four feet long, has a tarsus one foot; a stilt, 
fourteen inches long, a tarsus four inches; so the maximum and minimum of 
length of tarsus are represented by nearly thirty, and under three, per cent. 
of the bird’s whole length. 


46 CONDITIONS OF THE PODOTHECA. 


§ 76. Tae Naxep Part of the leg is covered, like the bill, by a hard- 
ened, thickened, modified integument, which varies in texture between cor- 
neous and leathery. This is called the rpoporneca (Gr. podos, of a foot, 
iheke, sheath). Land birds have the most horny covering, and water birds 
the most skinny; in general this is distinctive of these two great divisions 
of birds, and the exceptions are few. The perfectly horny envelope is 
tight and immovably fixed, or nearly so, while the skinny is looser, and may 
usually be slipped round about a little. The covering may also differ on 
different parts of the same leg; in fact, such is usually the case to a degree. 
Unlike the covering of the bill, that of the legs is NeveR simple and contin- 
uous throughout; it is divided and subdivided in various ways. The lower 
part of the crus, when naked, and the tarsus and toes, are variously cut up 
into seales, plates, tubercles, ete.; these have all received special names ; 
and moreover, the mode of this division becomes, especially among higher 
birds, a matter of the utmost consequence, for purposes of classification, 
since it is fixed and definite in the same groups. 

§ 77. Sourenrya (pl. of L. scutellum, a little shield; figs. 10, 11, 0) are 
scales, generally of large comparative size, arranged in definite up and down 
lines, and apt to be imbricated, or fixed shingle-wise, with the lower edge of 
one overlapping the upper edge of the next below. The great majority of 
birds have them. They generally occur on the front of the tarsus (which is 
called acrotarsium, and corresponds to our “instep”), and almost inva- 
riably on the top of the toes (called acropodium) ; frequently on the back 
of the tarsus; not so often on the tibia, sides of the tarsus, sides and under 
surfaces of the toes (if ever in the latter situation). A tarsus so furnished 
is said to be scutellate, before or behind, or both, as the case may be; 
the term is equally applicable to the acropodium, but the expression is 
rarely used because the scutella are so commonly there. 

§ 78. Paves, or reticulations (Li. reticulum, a little net or web; fig. 
11, a), result from the cutting up of the envelope by cross lines in various 
ways. Plates are of various shapes and sizes; but however they may be, in 
these respects, they are distinguished from scutella by not appearing 7mbri- 
caled; their edges simply meet, but do not overlap. They are generally 
smaller than scutella. The commonest shape is the six-sided, or hexagonal ; 
a form best adapted to close packing, as strikingly shown, and long ago 
miathematically proven, in case of the cells of bees’ honey-comb. They are 
sometimes five-sided, or even four-sided; but are more likely to have more 
sides, becoming irregularly polygonal, or even circular; when crowded in 
one direction and loosened in another, this develops into the oval, or even 
somewhat linear. A leg so furnished is called reticulate; it may be wholly 
so, but is generally partly scutellate. A particular case of reticulation is 
ealled ; 

§ 79. GRanuULATION (L. granum, a grain) ; when the plates become ele- 
vated into little tubercles, roughened or not. Such a leg is said to be gran- 
wluiled or rugose; it is well seen in the parroquet and fish hawk. 


CONDITIONS OF THE PODOTHECA. 47 


§ 80. Wuen the harder sorts of either scutella or plates are roughencd 
- without obvious elevation, the leg is said to be scabrous or scarious. But 
scabrous is also said of the under surfaces of the toes, when these develop 
special pads, or wart-like bulbs (called ¢ylarz) ; excellently shown in most 
hawks. The softer sorts of legs, and especially the’webs of swimming 
birds, are often crosswise or otherwise marked by lines, without these being 
strong enough to produce plates; this is a condition analogous to the little 
raised lines and depressions seen on our own palms, and especially our 
finger-tips. Occasionally, the plates of a part of the leg become so devel- 
oped as to form actual servation; seen on the hinder edge of the tarsus of 


grebes. 


Stel 


Fic. 9. “Booted” tarsus, of a robin. Fic.10. Scutellate tarsus, Fie. 11. b. Scutellate tarsus, of a 
of a cat-bird. pigeon; a. reticulate tarsus, of a 
plover. 


§ 81. Wuewn an unfeathered tarsus shows on its front surface no divisions 
of the podotheca, or only two or three divisions close by the toes, it is said 
to be booted, and the podotheca is said to be fused. (Fig. 9.) This con- 
dition chiefly occurs in higher Oscines, and is supposed by many, particu- 
larly German ornithologists, to indicate the highest type of structure; but 
it is also found in some water birds, as Wilson’s stormy petrel. It is not a 
very common modification. Among North American birds it only occurs 
in the following cases: —Genera Turdus (1), Oinclus (5), Saxicola (6), 
Sialia (7), Regulus (9), Chamea? (11), Myiadestes (52) and Oceanites 
(307) ; and even these birds, when young, show scutella, which disappear 
with age, by progressive fusion of the acrotarsial podotheca. 

§ 82. Tue Crus, when bare below, may present scutellation either before 
or behind, or both, as ‘is seen in many waders where the crus is largely 
naked; often again, the crural podotheca may consist of loose, softish, 
movable skin, not obviously subdivided: sometimes it is truly reticulate, 
as in the genus L/eteroscelus (221). 

§ 83. Tue Tarsus, in general, may be called subcylindrical ; it is often 
quite circular in transverse section ; very rarely thicker across than fore-and- 
aft (as in penguins); but very often thicker in the reverse direction. 
When this transverse thinness becomes noticeable, the tarsus is said to be 


48 NUMBER AND POSITION OF TOES. 


compressed: the form is seen in its highest development in the loon, where 
the tarsus is almost like a knife-blade. Cylindrical tarsi occur chiefly when 
there are scutella before and behind; it occurs in our shore lark (Hremo- 
phila, gen. 26), but is a rare modification among land birds, though very 
common among waders. ~The tarsus of the vast majority of land birds is 
seen, on close inspection, to be sharp-ridged behind, and gently rounded in 
front. This generally results from the presence, in front, of a series of 
scutella, associated, on the sides and hinder edge of the tarsus, with fusion, 
or with a few large plates variously arranged. The meeting of these two 
kinds of envelope on the sides of the tarsus is generally in a more or less 
complete straight up and down line; either a mere flush trace of union, or 
a ridge, oftener a groove (well seen in the crows) that may or may not be 
filled in with a few small linear plates. But further consideration of special 
states of the tarsal envelope, however important and interesting, would be 
part of a systematic treatise, rather than of an outline sketch like this. 

§ 84. Tue Tors (individually, digiti; collectively, podium). Their nor- 
mal number is FouR: there are never more. The ostrich alone has only two. 
There are ¢iree in all the auks (fam. Alcide) and albatrosses (subfam. Dio- 
medeine) ; in all struthious birds, except the ostrich and Apteryx; and in a 
large number of waders (Galle). Three toes only occur as an anomaly 
among Insessores, as in the cases of the exotic genus Ceya of kingfishers, 
and the genus Picoides of woodpeckers. North American three-toed birds 
are only these :—the woodpeckers just named ; auks and albatrosses ; plovers 
(except one, Squatarola, 189); the oystercatchers (Hamatopus, 194) ; the 
sanderling (Calidris, 211); the stilt (Himantopus, 197). In the vast 
majority of cases, there are three toes in front, and one behind ; occasionally, 
either the hind one, or the outermost front one, is versatile, that is, capable of 
being turned either way ; the outermost one is mostly so in the owls, the fish 
hawk (gen. 153), and a few other birds. We have no case of true versatility 
of the hind toe among North American birds, but several cases of its lateral 
stationary position (goatsuckers, some Western swifts, loons, and all the tot- 
ipalmate swimmers); nor have we any example of that rarest condition 
(seen in the European swifts, Cypselus, and in the Coliide) where all four 
toes are turned forward. This only occurs in the order Strisores. The ar-— 
rangement of toes two in front, and two behind, or ¢n pairs, characterizes the 
whole order Scansores, or climbers; such birds are said to be zygodactylous 
(yoke-toed ; see fig. 128). Our examples are the parrot, woodpeckers and 
* cuckoos, to which some add the trogons; in all these, except the last named, 
it is the outer anterior toe that is reversed. In nearly every three-toed bird, 
all three are anterior; our single exception is the genus Picoides (132), 
where the hind toe is wanting, the outer anterior reversed to take its place, 
and only two left in front. No bird has more toes behind than in front. 
All birds’ toes are 

§ 85. NumBERED, in a certain definite order, as follows (see figs. 8, 9) :— 
hind toe (1t) = first toe; inner anterior toe (2t) = second toe; middle an- 


STRUCTURE AND POSITION OF THE TOES. 49 


terior toe (3t) = third toe; outer anterior toe (4t) = fourth toe. In birds 
with the hind toe reversed, the same order is obvious: only, inner anterior 
toe = lt, ete. In zygodactyli (except Trogonide), inner hind toe =1t; 
inner front toe = 2t; outer front toe = 3t; outer hind toe = 4t. Now 
when the number of toes decreases, the toes are always reduced in the 
same order: thus, in all three-toed birds, 1t is wanting: in the two-toed 
birds 1t and 2t are wanting. This is proven by the 

§ 86. Noumser or Jorgts, or number of phalanges (§ 72, f) of the toes. 
The constancy of the joints in birds’ toes is remarkable, one of the strong- 
est expressions we have of the highly monomorphic character of the class 
Aves. In all birds, 1t has fwo joints (not counting the accessory metatar- 
sal). Inall birds, 2t has three joints. Im nearly all birds, 3t has four joints. 
In nearly all birds, 4t has five joints. The only exceptions to this, consist 
in the lessening of the joints of 3t by one, and the lessening of the joints 
of 4t by one or two. So in all cases, where the joints do not run 2, 3, 4, 5, 
for the toes from 1st to 4th, they run either 2, 3, 4, 4, or 2, 3, 3, 4, or 2, 
3, 3, 3. This variability in number of the internodes is confined (wholly ?) 
to the order Strisores. Our examples are in the sub-families Cypselinw and 
Caprimulgine (which see; see also figs. 119 and 122). This admirable 
conseryatism enables us to always determine what toes are missing, in birds 
with less than four; thus, in Picoides, the hind toe, though seemingly lt, 
is evidently 4t, because 5-jointed; in the ostrich, with only two toes, 3t 
and 4t are seen to be preserved, because they are respectively 4- and 5- 
jointed. (In fig. 8, the dotted line 1 indicates the first series of phalanges 
of all the toes; dot-line 2, the second ; the correspondence of the remaining 
phalanges is seen at a glance.) 

§ 87. THe position of the toes, other than in respect of their direction, 
is important. In atu birds the front toes are on the same level, or so 
nearly so, that the difference is not notable. And the same may be said of 
the hind toes, when there are two, as in Scansores. But the hind toe, when 
present and single, varies remarkably in position, and must have special 
notice, as this character is important in taxonomy. The insertion of this 
toe varies, from the very bottom of the tarsus, where it is on a level with 
the front toes, to some distance up the tarsus. When flush with the bases 
of the other toes, so that its whole under surface touches the ground, it is 
said to be incumbent. When just so much raised that its tip only touches 
the ground, it is called insistent. When so high up that it does not reach 
the ground at all, it is termed remote (amotus). But as the precise position 
varies insensibly, so that the foregoing distinctions are not readily per- 
ceived, it is practically best to recognize only two of these three conditions, 
and say simply, “hind toe elevated,” when it is inserted appreciably above 
the rest, or “hind toe not elevated,” when its insertion is flush with that of 
the other toes. In round terms: it is characteristic of all Insessores to have 
the hind toe pown;; it is characteristic of all other birds to have the hind toe 
up (when present). The exceptions to the first statement are extremely 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 7 


i 


50 CONDITIONS OF THE HIND TOE. 


rare; they are confined, among our birds, in any marked degree, to the two 
genera of Caprimulgide (gen. 114, 115) and the turkey buzzard ( Cathartes, 
gen. 166); but among other Laptores besides Cathartes, such as certain 
owls, and in some pigeons (lowest of Jnsessores, it will be remembered), 
the toe is not guite down, or is even perceptibly uplifted. Technically, how- 
ever, I take all these but the three first named, as having the toe down. It is 
elevated in all our L2asores or Gallinw (gen. 177 to 188) ; elevated in all our 
waders except the herons, ibises, and spoonbill; the elevation is least marked 
in the rail family, but still plain enough there. It is elevated in ALL 
swimming birds, whether lobe-footed, or partly or wholly web-footed ; but 
in the TYotipalmate order (Steganopodes, gen. 273 to 278) where it is lateral 
and webbed with the inner toe, the elevation is slight. Now since, curiously 
enough, the only three of our insessorial genera above mentioned (two of 
Caprimulgide, and Cathartes) that have the hind toe well up, have also 
little webs connecting the anterior toes; and since some Laptores are our 
only other Insessores with any such true webs; and since herons, ibises 
and spoonbills are our only birds with such true webs, that have the hind 
toe down, the following rule is infallible for all our birds: Consider the 
hind toe ur in every bird with any true webbing or lobing of the front toes, 
except herons and their allies and some birds of prey. The converse, 
also, holds nearly as well; for our only birds with fully-cleft anterior toes, 
and hind toe up, are the rails and gallinules, the black-bellied plover 
(our only 4-toed plover), the turnstone, the woodcock, Wilson’s snipe, and 
most of the true sandpipers. Besides its versatility of position the hind 
toe has 

§ 88. OTHER NOTABLE CHARACTERS. It is free and simple, in the vast 
majority of birds; in all Insessores, nearly all Cursores, and most WVata- 
ores. In length, it may equal or surpass (with its claw included) the 
longest anterior toe, and generally surpasses at least one or two of them. 
It is never so long as when down on a level with the rest; here also, it 
attains its greatest mobility, and among Passeres is virtually provided with a 
special muscle for its apposition with the others in the act of grasping. In 
general, it grows shorter as it gets higher up; and probably in no bird 
where it is truly elevated, is it so long as the shortest anterior toe. It is 
short and barely touches the ground in most waders; shorter still in some 
swimmers, as the gulls, where probably it is functionless; rudimentary in 
one genus of gulls, Rissa (284), where it bears no perfect claw; represented 
only by an immovable sessile claw, liable to be overlooked unless carefully 
sought for, in the petrels; it disappears in the birds above named (§ 84), 
and some others. It is never actually joined by direct soldering to either of 
the other toes, for any noticeable distance ; but is united to the base of the 
inner toe by a web in the loons, and to the whole length of the inner toe in 
all the Steganopodes (fig. 183). But it may be, as it were, independently 
webbed ; that is, have a lobe or flap of membrane hanging from it; this con- 
dition is seen in all the sea-ducks (Fuligine, gen. 260 to 270), and in all 


THE THREE PLANS OF THE AVIAN FOOT. ol 


our truly lobe-footed birds. I may finally consider the modes of union of 
the anterior toes under the head of the 

§ 89. THREE MODIFICATIONS OF THE BIRD’s Foor. All birds’ feet are 
built upon one or the other of three plans, corresponding to the three sub- 
classes Insessores, Cursores and Natatores. These are the perching plan, the 
walking or wading plan, and the swimming plan; and these are pretty 
sharply distinguished (independently of differences in the number and position 
of the toes) by the method of union. In the perching plan, the toes are 
only very exceptionally connected by true movable webbing; they are cleft 
to the base, or else joined, for a part, or the whole, of one joint, or a part 
also of the second joint, by actual cohesion. Our thrushes show about 
as complete cleavage as is ever seen; our wrens, titmice, creepers, etc., 
exhibit considerable basal cohesion. A remarkable exception is seen in the 
syngnesious foot; where the outer and middle toes fuse for nearly their 
whole length; the kingfisher (figs. 116, 117), illustrates this; and all such 
birds are called syndactylous (Gr. sun together, dactylon a finger). In the 
walking plan, the toes are never, probably, thus joined by fusion; and they 
are seldom cleft to the base; the union is generally by a movable basal web, 
of variable extent. This constitutes the semipalmate (4-webbed, that is,) 
foot. But the webs occasionally, in true wading birds, run out to the ends 
of the toes, as in the avocet (gen. 196), and in the flamingo (if indeed this 
bird really belongs among waders). Generally they run out to the end of 
the first, or along part of the second joint, constituting true semipalmation ; 
shown in the semipalmated sandpiper and willet. (Figs. 166,170.) Oftener 
the web is of about this size between the outer and middle toes, and slighter 
or wholly deficient between the middle and inner; this is shown in nearly all 
our larger waders, including herons. (It is also the usual state of webbing 
of those hawks that have semipalmation.) In the swimming plan, the foot 
is changed into a paddle by webbing or lobing; the former constitutes the 
palmate, and the latter the lobate, foot. In the palmate, the webbing is 
usually complete betwixt the three front toes; it is extended to the hind toe, 
likewise, in all Steganopodes, and partly in the loons. Sometimes the 
webbing is defective, from deep incision, or cutting away of the free anterior 
border of the webs for some distance: this is seen partly in the genus Phi- 
lacte (249) and much more so in the short-tailed tern, Hydrochelidon (gen. 
292; fig. 208), where it simulates semipalmation. But in such a case, if 
the fresh foot be carefully examined, the webbing will be seen running 
as a narrow border, quite to the claws, as usual. Frequently, one web 
is larger than the other, as in all our terns (fig. 207, for example) where 
the inner web is somewhat defective. In the lobate foot, instead of con- 
necting webs, we have a series of broad lobes along each joint of the 
toes, as in the coot, and all the grebes: but it is almost always, if not 
always, associated with semipalmation. It occurs, again, in some wad- 
ing birds, as the remarkable family of the phalaropes, which swim, in 
fact, better than they walk. Here the lobation may be either scolloped, 


52 MARGINAL MEMBRANE—THE CLAWS, 


or cut out at the joints, as in the coot, or plain, that is, straight-edged. 
(Fig. 162.) True lobation, occurring, among North American birds, only 
in the grebes, coots, and phalaropes, must be carefully distinguished from 
various 

§ 90. Marcinat Frinass, or processes, that birds of the lower orders 
often exhibit. Thus, if a gallinule be examined in a fresh state, it will be ~ 
found to have a margin of membrane running along the sides of the toes, 
and the same is the case, if less evident, in a great many waders. Palmate 
birds also show it, on the free borders of 2¢ and 4¢; it is very conspicuous 
in the albatrosses, and plain enough in geese, &c. In the grouse family 
there is a remarkable development of horny substance, resembling a real 
fringe, being cut into a series of sharp teeth, or pectinations. 

§ 91. Tre Craws. With certain anomalous exceptions, as in case of a 
rudimentary hind toe, every toe bears a claw. The general shape of the 
claw is remarkably constant.throughout birds: variations are in degree only, 
rather than in kind. A cat’s claw represents nearly the usual shape, viz: 
compressed, arched, acute. The great talons of a bird of prey are only the 
extreme of this typical shape. Besides this general shape, the claws are 
usually dug out underneath, so that the transverse section, as well as length- 
wise outline below, is concave, and the under surface is bounded on either 
side by a sharp edge. One of these edges, and particularly the inner edge 
of the middle claw, is somewhat dilated or expanded in a great many birds; | 
aud in some it becomes changed into a perfect comb, by having a regular 
series of teeth. This pectination occurs only on the inner edge of 
the middle claw; it is beautifully shown by all the true herons (Ardeide) ; 
by the whippoorwills and nighthawks, by the frigate pelican, and, to 
a less degree, by the barn owl. It is supposed to be used for cleaning 
out lice from parts that cannot be reached by the bill; but this is open 
to question, seeing that outside the herons, it chiefly occurs among very 
short-legged birds, that cannot possibly reach many parts of the plumage 
with the toes. Besides Faptores, most perching birds are very sharp- 
clawed; the claws are more obtuse among the pigeons and Galline 
(seratchers) and still more so among most swimming birds. Obtuseness is 
generally associated with flatness, or depression; this is seen in Wilson’s 
petrel, as distinguished from all our others, and carried to the extreme in 
the grebes, where the claws resemble human nails. The deviations from 
curvature occur principally in the hind claw; this is straight or nearly so, in 
the shore lark, and some terrestrial sparrows, as the genus Plectrophanes 
(63). All the claws are straight, and prodigiously long, in some exotic 
birds of the rail tribe—the jacanas (Parra); this enables the birds to 
run lightly over the floating leaves of aquatic plants, by so* much increase of 
breadth of support that they do not slump in. Claws are also variously 
carinate, suleate, etc. They are always horny. They take name from and 
are reckoned by the digits they belong to: thus, lcl. = claw of 1¢: 2el. 
= claw of 2t, etc. 


HOW TO USE THE KEY. 53 


SECT. IV. Drrecrions.— HOW TO USE THE KEY.—HOW TO MEASURE A 
SPECIMEN, ETC. 
1. HOW TO USE THE KEY. 


§ 92. We have in hand a bird which we know nothing about, and desire 
to identify; that is, to discover its name and position in the system; and to 
learn whatever else the present volume may afford. Let us suppose it to be 
that little black and white spotted bird which we often see climbing about 
our fruit trees, boring holes in the bark. 

The Key opens with an arbitrary division of our birds, according to the 
number and position of their toes. Our specimen, we see, has four toes, 
arranged in pairs; that is, two before and two behind. It therefore comes 
under the third division (111). Turning to III, we read :— 

Bill with a cere, and strongly epignathous, etc., 
—not cered; inner hind toe with 3 joints, etc., 
—only 2 joints. (f) 

We see that the bill of the specimen is neither cered nor hooked, and 
that the inner hind toe is 2-jointed. Following, therefore, the reference- 
letter (f), we find three alternatives, viz., 

(f£) Tail of 8 feathers, etc., 


— 10 soft feathers, etc., 
— 12 (apparently only 10) rigid acuminate feathers. (g) 


The tail feathers of the specimen are stiff and pointed, and we count ten 
perfect ones, besides a rudimentary pair concealed at the bases of the others. 
Evidently, then, we continue with the reference letter (g), as follows :— 


(g) Birds > 14 inches long, etc., 
(g) Birds <14 in.; ridges on upper mandible reaching tip, etc., . . . . . Prcus, 131. 


The specimen is much less than fourteen inches long, and the sharp ridges 
on the sides of the upper mandible run quite to the end of the bill; and 
here, at last, instead of a reference-letter, we find a genus named; which 
is the one to which the specimen belongs. The bird is a Picus. ‘ 

§ 93. Tuus the key conducts to a genus, by presenting in succession, 
certain alternatives, on meeting with each of which, the student has only to 
determine which one of the two or more sets of characters agrees with those 
afforded by his specimen. There will not, it is believed, be any trouble 
in determining whether a given character 7s so, or is not so, since only the 
most tangible, definite, and obvious features have been selected in framing 
the key. After each determination, either the name of a genus is encoun- 
tered, or else a reference-letter leads on to some new alternative, until by a 
gradual process of elimination the proper genus is reached. After a few 
trials, with specimens representing different groups, the process will be 
shortened, for the main divisions will have been learned; still, the student 


54 HOW TO USE THE KEY. 


must be careful how he strikes in any where except at the beginning, for a 
false start will soon set him hopelessly adrift. The Key has been tested * 
so thoroughly that there is little danger of his running off the track except 
through carelessness, or misconception of technical terms; but there is no 
excuse for the former, and the latter may be obviated by the Glossary and 
the Introduction, which should be consulted when any doubt arises. Time 
spent upon the Introduction will be time saved in the end. 

§ 94. Now the genus Picus that we found has a number after it, which 
refers to the Systematic Synopsis, where the genera are numbered consecu- 
tively. The running numbers at the top of the pages catch the eye ina 
moment, and enable us to turn directly to Picus, 131. Here we find a few 
remarks, illustrative of the general character of all our species of the genus ; 
and these we see, are six in number. We have now to find out which one 
of the six ours is; and to this end they are analyzed, that is, mapped out 
in groups, in such way that we perceive their most striking features, or 
diagnostic characters, almost at a glance : — 


* Body not banded, streaked nor spotted. 
**-S potted and crosswise banded, but not streaked. 
*#* Spotted and lengthwise streaked, but not banded. 
t+ Usually 9-10 long; outer tail-feathers wholly white. 


tt Usually 6-7 lone oma tail-feathers barred with black and white. 

The specimen has no transverse bars of color on the body, but a long 
white streak down the back, and a profusion of white spots on the wings and 
their coverts; it is not over seven inches long, and has the outer tail feath- 
ers black and white; so that we know it comes under ***+f+. As there 
is but one species given there, our bird is at last identified. It is the 
downy woodpecker, Picus pubescens. The term pubescens, at the end of 
the descriptive paragraph, is the specific name, which, joined with the gen- 
eric name, Picus, constitutes the scientific designation of the species, as ex- 
plained in the Introductign, p. 13. In this case of the downy woodpecker, 
no full description appears, merely because the bird “is exactly like P. 
villosus” (the preceding species) except in the diagnostic points of size and 
barred rectrices ; but in general, a concise specific description will be found. 
These descriptions are not always, or even usually, full and complete; 
being designed simply to discriminate the several species of the same genus, 
or to certify that the student has discovered the right species, if there be 
but one under the genus. But since mere identification of a specimen is not 
all that we may desire, many other particulars are really given. Thus we 
discover that the downy woodpecker inhabits Eastern North America, and is 
replaced in the West by a variety closely resembling it. We discover its 
exact relations to its congener, P. villosus, and of both these to the other 


*In the cases of over nine-tenths of the genera, by actual comparison with the specimens themselves, and 
found to give accurate results. It is just possible, that an occasional immature specimen, or one offering un- 
usual deviation from the normal standard, cannot be determined by the Key. 


DIRECTIONS FOR MEASUREMENT. 55 


species of the genus. We have a reference to several standard authors, 
which may be consulted if desired. Turning back a few pages, we find that 
the genus Picus belongs to the sub-family Picine, of the family Picide, of 
the order Scansores; and each of these groups is defined, illustrated, or 
otherwise noticed. In this way, it is believed, a single specimen may 
be made the means of imparting no inconsiderable amount of information. 


2. HOW TO MEASURE A SPECIMEN. 


§ 95. For large birds, a tape line showing inches and fourths will do: 
for small ones, a foot rule, graduated for inches and eighths, or better, deci- 
mals to hundredths, must be used; and for all nice measurements the divid- 
ers are indispensable. 

§ 96. Ix comparing measurements made with those given in the Synop- 
sis, absolute agreement must not be expected; individual specimens vary 
too much for this. It will generally be satisfactory enough, if the discrep- 
ancy is not beyond certain bounds. A variation of, say, five per cent., may 
be safely allowed on birds not larger than a robin: from this size up to that 
of a crow or hawk, ten per cent.; for larger birds even more. Some birds 
vary up to twenty or twenty-five per cent., in their total length at least. 
So if I say of a sparrow for instance, “length five inches,” and the speci- 
men is found to be anywhere between four and three-fourths and five and 
one-fourth, it will be quite near enough. £Lut:—the relative proportions 
of the different parts of a-bird are much more constant, and here less dis- 
crepancy is allowable. Thus “tarsus longer than the middle toe,” or the re- 
verse, is often a matter of much less than a quarter of an inch: and as it is 
upon just such nice points as this that a great many of the generic analyses 
rest, the necessity of the utmost accuracy in measuring, for use of the key, 
becomes obvious. When I find it necessary to use the qualification “about” 
(as, “bill abovt—tarsus”) I probably never mean to indicate a difference of 
more than five per cent. of the length of the part in question. 

§ 97. “Lenern.” Distance between the tip of the bill and the end of the 
longest tail feather. Lay the bird on its back on the ruler on a table, take 
hold of the bill with one hand, and of both legs with the other; pull with 
reasonable force, to get the curve all out of the neck; hold the bird thus 
with tip of the bill flush with the end of the rule, and see how much the end 
of the tail points to. Put the tape line in place of the ruler, in the same 
way, for larger birds. 

§ 98. “Exrenr.” Distance between the tips of the outspread wings. 
They must be fully outstretched. With the bird on its back, crosswise on 
the ruler, its bill pointing to your breast, take hold of right and left meta- 
carpus with thumb and forefinger of your right and left hand, respectively, 
stretch with reasonable force, getting one wing-tip flush with one end of the 
ruler, and see how much the other wing-tip points to. With large birds, 
pull away as hard as you please, and use the table, floor, or side of the 
room, as convenient; mark the points and apply tape line. 


56 DIRECTIONS FOR MEASUREMENT. 


As this measurement cannot be got at all from dried skins, I do not often 
use it in this book. But it is highly important, and for the very reason that 
it cannot be got afterwards, always note it down from fresh specimens. The 
first measurement, likewise, can only be got at approximately in skins, and 
the following details are really our chief data in all cases :— 

§ 99. “Lenera or wing.” Distance from the angle formed at the 
(carpus) bend of the wing, to the end of the longest primary. Get it with 
compasses for small birds. In birds with a convex wing, do not lay the tape 
line over the curve, but under the wing, stretching in a straight line from 
the carpal angle, to end of longest primary. This measurement is the one 
called, for short, “the wing ;” thus when I say, simply, “wg. 12,” I mean 
that this distance is twelve inches; so, also, “wg. 4 tl.,” means that this 
distance is half as great as the length of the tail. 

§ 100. “Lenern or rain.” Distance from the roots of the rectrices, 
to the end of the longest one, whichever one that may be. Feel for the 
pope’s nose; in either a fresh or dried specimen, there is more or less of a 
palpable lump into which the tail feathers stick. Guess as near as you can 
to the middle of this lump; place the end of the ruler opposite the point, 
and see how much the tip of the longest tail feather points to. “Depth of 
fork” and “amount of gradation,” in a tail, is the difference between the 
shortest and the longest tail feathers ; in the one case the outer, in the other 
the middle, pair of rectrices is the longest. 

§ 101. “Lenern or situ.” Exactly what this is, depends upon the 
writer. Some take the curve of the upper mandible; others the side of 
the upper mandible from the feathers; others the gape, ete. I take the 
chord of the culmen. Place one foot of the dividers on the culmen just 
where the feathers end—no matter whether the culmen runs up on the 
forehead, or the frontal feathers run out on the culmen, and no matter 
whether the culmen is straight or curved. Then with me the length of the 
bill is the shortest distance from the point just indicated to the tip of the 
upper mandible. Measure it with the dividers. In a straight bill, of 
course it is the length of the culmen itself; in a curved bill, however, it is 
quite another thing. The “depth of bill” is determined opposite the same 
point; it is a perpendicular transverse dimension: the “ width of the bill” is 
determined at the same point; it is the horizontal transverse dimension. 
“The gape” is the shortest distance between the commissure proper (see 
§ 53, and fig. 5, h) and the tip of the upper mandible. 

§ 102. “Lenerxn oF Tarsus.”* This is the most important measurement 
for the purposes of this volume. Measure it always with dividers, and in 
Sront of the leg. It is the distance between the joint of the tarsus with the 
leg above, and that with the first phalanx of the middle toe below. Place 
one foot of the dividers exactly upon the middle of the tibio-tarsal joint in 
front. The front of this joint is rounded on either side by two little semi- 
circular rims, or lateral elevations, more or less evident in different birds ; 
you want to get just between them. In the softer-legged wading, or water 


DIRECTIONS FOR MEASUREMENT. 57 


birds, there is a slight elevated point right in the middle; this, or the posi- 
tion of it in other birds, is the precise place. Place the other foot of the 
dividers over the transverse line of jointing of the base of the middle toe. 
This latter point, in all birds, when the toes are bent backward, becomes a 
more or less salient angle easily determined. In hard-legged birds it is 
usually indicated by the termination of last tarsal scutellum ; in water birds, 
there will be seen a little crosswise nick, showing just where the skin has 
shrunk into the crack between the end of the metatarsus and the base of 
the toe. It will be evident that a measurement taken as here directed will 
not always be the same as one taken behind, up over the convexity of the 
heel, and down to the level of the sole; but there are behind no other 
tangible points of termination. (See fig. 9, ¢rs.) What, now, is the mean- 
ing of the expression—“d. = $ trs.”? 

§ 103. “LenerH or ToEs.” Distance in a straight line along the upper 
surface of a toe, from the point last indicated, to the root of the claw on 
top. Observe that, as the claws are inserted upon the ends of the toes, 
somewhat as the nails are on our fingers, this measurement is a different 
thing from one taken along the under surface of the toes. Always make 
it with the dividers. Length of toe is always taken without the claw unless 
otherwise specified. When no particular toe is specified, 3¢ is always 
meant. (See fig. 9, 3fcl.) Define this expression : —“¢rs.> 31.” 

§ 104. “Lenern or THE cLaws.” Distance in a straight line from the 
point last indicated to the tip of the claw. (See § 101.) When this 
measurement is meant to be included in the length of toe, I say décl. 
Determine this : —‘“‘trs. < 3¢cl.” 

§ 105. “Lenern or nEap” is an often convenient dimension for compar- 
ison with the bill. Set one foot of the dividers on the base of culmen 
(determined as above), and allow the other to just slip snugly down over 
the arch of the occiput. This is the required measurement. What does 
this mean :—“/d. = b.”? 

§ 106. ALL MEASUREMENTS are in the English inch and vulgar fractions 
or decimals, unless otherwise specified. 

§ 107. Fryatty, it may be well to call attention to the fact, that most 
persons unaccustomed to handling birds are liable to be deceived in attempt- 
ing to estimate a given dimension; they generally make it out less than 
measurement shows it to be. This seems to be an optical. effect connected 
with the solidarity of the object, as is well illustrated in drawing plates of 
birds, which, when made exactly of life-size, always look larger than the 
original, on account of the flatness of the paper. The ruler or tape-line, 
therefore, should always be used, and are more particularly necessary in 
those cases where analyses in the Key rest upon dimensions. It is hardly 
necessary to add, that in taking, approximately, the total length from a 
prepared specimen, regard should be had for the “make-up” of the skin. A 
little practice will enable one to determine pretty accurately how much a 
skin is stretched or shrunken, and to make the due allowance in either case. 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 8 3 


58 


abd. Abdomen. 
ad. Adult. 

aut. Autumn. 
avill. Axillaries. 
b. Bill. 

bl. Blue. 

blk. Tlack. 


Br. Am. British America. 


brn. Brown. 

brst. Breast. 

cl. Claw, claws. 

col. Color. 

cold. Colored. 
comm, Commissure. 
culm. Culmen. 

Eur. Europe. 

Jthr. Feather. 
Jtir’d, Feathered. 
JSthrs. Feathers. 

hd. Head. 

gon. Gonys. 

gr. Gray. 

grn. Green. 

intersc. Interscapularies. 


ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS. 


ABBREVIATIONS USED. 


lgth. Length. 

mand, Mandible. 

max. Maxilla. 

Mex. Mexico, 

N.Am. North America (at large). 

nost. Nostrils. 

obs. Observation. 

occip. Occiput. 

olv. Olive. 

plmg. Plumage. 

prim. Primary—ies. 

purp. Purple. 

rect. Nectrices. 

rem. Remiges. 

retic. Reticulitions. 

reticc. Reticulate. 

rmp. Rump. 

scap. Scapularies. 

seut. Scutella. 

seutt. Scutellate. 

sec. Secondary —ies. 

’sh. Diminishing suffix; as blk’sh, 
blackish. 

spr. Spring. 


A few contractions, not given above, are self-explanatory. 


d. Male. 
Q. Female. 


Og, oryg. ®. Young male. 
09, oryg. 9. Young female. 
= Sign of equality; generally, as long as. 


> More; generally, longer than; also, greater than, 


or more than. 


< Less; generally, shorter than; also, smaller than, 


or less than. 


SIGNS USED. 


sum. Summer. 

superc. Superciliary. 

wg.wgs. Wing, wings. 

win. Winter. 

W. J. West Indies. 

t. Toe, toes, 

tcl. Toe and claw together. 

tert. Tertiary —ies. 

tib. Tibia. 

thrt. Throat. 

wl. Tail. 

trs. Tarsus. 

un. mand, Under mandible. 

un.-tl.-cov. Under tail coverts. 

un.-wg.-cov. Under wing coverts. 

up. mand, Upper mandible. 

up.-tl.-cov. Upper tail coverts. 

up.-wg.-cov. Upper wing coverts. 

U.S. United States, except Alaska; 
usual abbreviations for names of 
States and Territories. 

wht. White. 

yell. Yellow. 

yg. Young. 


! Certainty, with personal responsibility (not ex- 


clamation or surprise). 


All other punctua- 


tion as usual. 


*, t,t, ete. 


Refer as usual to foot notes, when at 
the end of a word: when before a word or 
paragraph, they are used to point off sections 


in a manner that will be evident. 


*,* Interpolated sentences, 


§ Complete paragraphs (in the introduction only). 


. WORKS CITED. 59 


WORKS REFERRED TO. 


I quote throughout the following standard American works when they notice the species in question : — 
“ils.” WiLson, ALEXANDER. American Ornithology. 9 vols., 4fo. 1808-I4. (The original ed., and 
Ord’s continuation.) ; 


“Nuit.” NUTTALL, THOMAS. Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and of Canada. 2 vols. 
mo. (The first ed., of 1832-34, unless the 2d (of 1810) is specified.) 


“Aud.” AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES. Birds of America. 7 vols., 8vo. 1840.44. (Octavo reprint of the 
* Ornithological Biography,” repaged and with systematic arrangement and renumbering of the plates of 
the folio edition.) 

* Cass.” CASSIN, JOHN.. Illustrations of the Birds of California, Texas, ete. S8vo,1 vol. _ 1853-55. 

“Bd.” “Cass. in Bd.” “*Zawr. in Bd.” BAIRD, SPENCER F., with the coéperation of JoHn Cassin 
and GEORGE N. LAWRENCE. Birds of North America; constituting the ninth vol. of the Pacific Railroad 


Explorations and Suryeys. 1858. (Also republished separately, with a few additions and a 2d vol. of 100 
plates, by the Naturalists’ Agency, 1870.) 


“Eu” Ettor,D.G. Birds of North America. 2 yols., folio. (Plates and descriptions of many species 
recently introduced to our fauna, or before unfigured.) 


“Coop” Birds of California. From the MSS. notes of J. G. Cooper. Edited by S. F. Baird. 1 vol. 
8vo, 1870. 


I also quote, in particular cases, papers from the proceedings of different societies, etc., by various 
writers. The references in these instances are sufliciently explicit. 


The Roman numerals immediately after the italicized anthor’s name, refer to the volume; the next figure, 
to the page; *‘pl.” with figures after it, to the number of the plate; “ fig.,” to the number of the jigure. 


= = f ‘ee \ \\ie™ 
N24 Rs NE \) 5 as 
—\ Vy y 


ci) 


Lyre Bird of Australia. (See § 70.) 


RHY TO THE - GENERA. 


i PEON EOREMIND.©. . - 9 - - - - . «.9«-+ + + « PrcorpEs' 132 
TOES 3,—3 rm FRONT. (II.) 

TOES 4,—2 IN FRONT, 2 BEHIND. (III.) 

TOES 4,—3 IN FRONT, 1 BEHIND. (IV.) 


II. [Tors 3,—3 IN FRONT. ] 


Toes incompletely, or not webbed. (a) 
Toes completely webbed. (d) 


(a) Naked leg and foot together about wing. Bill subulate; one basalweb. .. . . . HIMANTOPUS 197 
Qa —much<the wing. (b) 
(b) Bill much>tarsus, truncate at tip; trs. retieulate. Birds over 12incheslong, . . . HA&MATOPUS 194 


—much<, or about=—trs. Birds under 12 inches long. (c) 


(c) Tarsus in front scutellate, about—bill, . . . . SeTee uae cathe ss Soke 1 CALIDRIS 212 
—reticulate,> bill; plumage Speckled: bn ESRD =e e  « -« CHARADRIUS 190 
— not speckled; trs. nearly Gyibe st. dee. 3, LODASOCYS i192 
—notnearly twice=3t., . . . . AGIALITIS 191 
(d) Nostrils tubular ; sides of under mandible notsulcate,. ...... +... =. +. « . DIOMEDEA 296 
—with along colored groove,. . .. . . . PH@BETRIA 297 
— not tubular (linear, oval, etc.) (e) 
(e) Nostrils naked; eyelids horny; both mandibles suleate. Notcrested . .... . . FRATERCULA 318 
—simple. Birds>12long; up. mand. suleate. Crested, . . .. . . LUNDA 319 
—not suleate. Crested, . . . CERATORHINA 320 
- —<12 long; un. mand. faléate, up. mand. oval, . . PHALERIS 321 
—not faleate; up. mand. wrinkled, . PTrYCHORHAMPHUS 323 
—smooth,. . . SIMORHYNCHUS 322 
(e) Nostrils incompletely feathered; tail nearly even; b. and trs.compressed, . SYNTHLIBORHAMPHUS 325 
—gradated; bill and tarsus not compressed, . . . . MERGULUS 324 
(e) Nostrils completely feathered ; tarsus in front reticulate. Birds under12long, . BRACHYRHAMPHUS 326 
—12ormorelong, . . . URIA 327 
— scutellate; b. not sulcate or cultrate,. . . . LOMVIA 328 
—suleate. Bird<24, . . .. UTAMANIA 317 
Bird = 24, . 2 ». « « ALCAN SIG 


III. [Toes 4, rn Patrs, 2 IN FRONT, 2 BEHIND.] 


Bill with a cere, and strongly epignathous; tarsus granulated,. . ...... . +. + « . CONURUS 138 

—not cered; inner hind toe with 3 joints; plumage iridescent, ........ . . . TROGON 125 
—only 2 joints. (f) 

(f) Tail of 8 feathers; upper mandible sulcate; sides of head partly naked, . . . . . . CROTOPHAGA 126 

—10 soft feathers; tarsus>middle toe and claw; lores bristly; birds about 2 feet long, GEOCOCCYX 127 

—<_ middle toe and claw; lores soft; birds about1 foot long, . Coccyzus 128 


—12 (apparently only 10) rigid acuminate feathers. (g) 
(gz) Birds > 14 inches long, conspicuously crested; bill and nasal feathers not dark, . . . CAMPEPHILUS 129 
—dark,.. . Hy.Loromus 130 
(g) Birds < 14 in.; ridges on up. mand. reaching tip; tongue acute, barbed. Noyellow,. . . . Picus 131 
—ridges running into tomium; tongue obtuse, brushy. Some yellow, . SPHYRAPICUS 133 
—ridges wanting, or indistinct and not reaching tip or tomia. (g?) 


(g?) plumage of belly bristly, of back with metallic iridescence, . . . . ASYNDESMUS 136 
— normal, with many round black spots, . .. . ... .COLAPTEs 137 

—not spotted; not whife, ...... . . CENTURUS 134 

—white, .... . . . MELANERPES 135 


(61) 


62 KEY TO THE GENERA. 


IV. [Tors 4,—3 1N rront, 1 BrnIND.] 


§. HIND TOE INSERTED ABOVE THE LEVEL OF THE REST (AND ALWAYS SHORTER THAN THE SHORTEST 
ANTERIOR TOE). (A) 

§. HIND TOR NOT INSERTED ABOVE THE LEVEL OF THE REST (AND generally but not always NOT SHORTER 
THAN THE SHORTEST ANTERIOR TOE). (B) 


A. (The hind toe elevated.) 


~ 


1. Feet TOTIPALMATE; (all 4 toes webbed } hind toe semilateral and barely elevated.) (A) 
2. Feet PALMATE; (3 front toes completely webbed, hind toe well up, simple or lobed, free or Be by 

slight webbing with base only of inner toe.) (B) 

3. Feet LOBATE; (3 front toes (partly webbed, or not, and) CONSVICUOUSLY bordered with plain or scooped 

membranes ; hind toe free, and simple or lobed.) (C) 

4, Feet SEMIPALMATE; (2, 07 3, front toes webbed at base only by small yet evident membrane; hind toe well 

up, simple.) (D) 

5. Feet SIMPLE; front toes with no evident membranes ; hind toe well up, simple. (B) 
(A) Tarsus feathered, partly; tail deeply forked; bill epignathous, . . «0 fa oo, LAOH PRR See ny 
—naked; bill>tail, hooked at tip, furnished with an enormous pach, - . .™. PELECANUS 274 
—< fail; throat feathered; middle tail feathers filamentous, .... . PHAETHON 278 
4 —naked; tail pointed, soft; tomia subserrate,, oleh! os) ley fou, amu OR 
—rounded, stiff; bill paragnathous, . . . . . . PLOTUS 276 
—epignathous, . . . . «. GRACULUS 275 
(B) Ilind toe somewhat Jateral, and joined by slight web to base only of inner toe, -« « » COLYMBWS Sil 
— directly posterior, free, and simple or lobed. (h) 

(h) Bill—recuryed, depressed at base, subulate, extremely acute, . . . . . . . . #RECURVIROSTRA 196 
— bent abruptly downward near its middle, and lamellate, . . .» PHOEXICOPTERUS 246 
—neither recurved, nor abruptly bent. (i) 7 

(i) Bill—hypognathous, corneous, cultrate, suleate, . . . 4 . . RHYNCHOPS 295 
— paragnathous, corneous, not lamellute; nostrils not tubul: a5 + tail er even. a) 

— epignathous (or paragn. and tl. even), corneous, not lamellate; nostrils not tubular. (1) 
—epignathous, corneous, not lamellate; nostrils tubular. (mm) 
— paragnathous, mostly membranous, /amedlate, nostrils not tubular. (mn) 
(k) Tail graduated, and middle feathers shorter than next pair. Plumage sombre brown . . . ANOUS 294 
— forked; toes almost semipalmate. Black, brown or ashy, and white, . . . . HyDROCHELIDON 292 
—well webbed; feet not black; back pale; nocrest, . . .. . . + . »« STERNA 291 
—bik.; wht. crescent on forehead (Sterna, 291, or) . HALIPLANA 293 
—no crescent; not crested; b. barely >trs., GELOCHELIDON 289 
—crested; b.much>trs., . THALASSEUS 290 
1) Bill with a sort of cere; middle tail feathers exserted; tarsus<3tcl., . . . . . . . . BUPHAGUS 279 
—=btel., oe + s 6 ew) 6(SRERCORARITSReRD. 
—not cered; hind toe rudimentary, not bearing a perfect claw, cers 5 ie + s » « WRISSA RBS 
— perfect; tail wedge-shayed; a dark collar round meee es " RHOPOSTHETHIA 286 
— forked; bill black, tipped with yellow, . ... . .°. . XEMA 287 
—reddish, not tipped with yellow, . . . CREAGRUS 288 
—even; tarsus black, rough; webs incised, . PAGOPHILA 285 
—not black. Under plumage — (1?) 
(1°) dark, head white, tail black, bill and feet reddish, . . .. . BLASIPUS 282 
(1°) white, head dark (if dark, head whitish), . . . CHRG@COCEPHALUS 283 
(12) white, head white (if dark, head not whitish), . . .. . . DLARUS 281 
(m) Tarsus not<3t.; claws depressed, obtuse; tarsal scutella fused; webs with yellow, . OCBANITES 307 
— distinct; webs black, . .. . FREGETTA 868 
—compressed; tailcuneate; no white anywhere, .... . HALOCYPTENA 303 
—nearly even. Blk. or smoky brown, and white, PROCELLARIA 304 
—forked. Blk. or smoky brown, and white, . CYMOCHOREA 305 
—Not black and white, . . . . . OCEANODROMA 306 
(m) Trs. <3tcl.; tail of 12 feathers; nasal tube obliquely truncate, septum thick, . . . . . PUFFINUS 310 
— vertically truncate, septumthin, .. . . PRIOFINUS 309 
—>12 fthrs.; plmg. conspicuously spotted, .... . o 8 wpe se + at CDA RTONES OT 
—unspotted; tl. cneeats . AESTRELATA 362 
—not cuneate; 16-fthi’d OSSIFRAGA 258 
—14-fthrd. b. << trs., FULMARUS 299 
—=trs., PRIOCELLA 300 
(n) Lamelle acute, like saw-teeth, retrorse; bill terete, black; trs.=}3t.,. . . . .|. . LOPHODYTES 272 
—not black; trs.>33t., .... . . . MeERGUS 271 
—simple; bill depressed toward end; lores naked. Adult entirely white,. . . . . CYGNUS 247 
— feathered; trs. in front—reticulate. (0) 
—scutellate. (p) 
(o) Trs. not>3tcl. Plumage partly lavender-colored, head white, tliroat black, + . . + PHILACTE 249 
—> 3tel.; bill and legs not black. White or gray, bluish, speckled, ete., ... . . . ANSER 248 
—black; neck all black; nostrils median, ..... . . . BRANTA 250 
—not all black; nostrils subbasal,. . . DENDROCYGNA 251 


KEY TO THE GENERA. 63 


(p) Himd toe simple; head crested, and narrow tip of bill formed wholly by thenail,. . . . . . <Arx 259 
—not crested; bill much wider atend than at base, . ...... SPATULA 258 
—not wider; tail cuneate, } or more of the wing, . . DAFILA 253 
—not cuneate, not } the wing. (p*) 
(p*) Bill< head; crown streaked; tl. {thrs lance-acute; 9 and yg. of . DAFILA 253 


— creamy or white; speculum green, . . . . . MARECA 255 

—about=hd.; speculum white: wing coverts chestnut, CHAULELASMUS 254 

—little>hd. speculum violet, black and white bordered, . . . . ANAS 252 

—green; wing coverts sky blue, . QUERQUEDULA 257 

4 —notblue, ... NETTION 256 

(p) Hind toe lubed; cheeks bristly. Colors black and white, ....... . . . . CAMPTOLEMUS 264 


tail pointed ; in the adult=or> wing; bill black and orange, . . . . . HARELDA 263 
—rounded, the feathers stiff, lance-linear, exposed to their bases, , . ERISMATURA 270 
— Ducks with none of the foregoing characters. (p%) 

(p*) Up. mand. gibbous at its unfeathered base. Black or brown,. . . . . G2DEMIA 269 

—not gibbous where unfeathered; nail narrow, distinct. (p+) 
— broad, fused. (p*) 

(p*) Head black or gray, with white; nost. nearly median; b. about=trs., BUCEPHALA 262 
—reddish or brownish, no white; nost. nearly median; b.>trs., . AYTHYA 261 
—black or brown; nost. subbasal; b.>trs., . . 7 epee baths UME dE one 

(p*®) Feathers not extending on culmen; bill barely tapering a in, . « POLYSTICTA 266 

—much tapering to tip, . . HISTRIONICUS 265 
— extending on culm., and partly on sides of upper mand., . SOMATERIA 268 
— entirely on sides of up.mand., . LAMPRONETTA 267 


(C) Forehead naked, with a large horny plate formed by extension of culmen, . . . . . . , FULICA 245 
—feathered; lores feathered; tail perfect; bill flattened, membranes scolloped, PHALAROPUS 200 
—subulate, membranes scolloped, . . Lonrrrs 199 


—subulate, membranes plain, . . STEGANOPUS 198 
—naked; tail, none; forehead bristly; billepignathous, . . . PODILYMBUS 315 
—soft; bill paragnathous. (q) 
(q) Tarsus =middle toe and claw. Birds 20 inches, or more,long,. . . .. . . . . AZCHMOPHORUS 312 
—<middle toe and claw. Birds from 12 to 19 inches long, era. as et eee case OR ODIOKRES S13 
Birds under 12incheslong, ..... .. . . . SYLBEOCYCLUS 314 


(D) Middle claw pectinate ; 4t. 4-jointed; 16. lateral; tail rounded; long rictal bristles, . ANTROSTOMUS 114 
— forked; short rictal bristles, . . CHORDEILES 115 
(D) = claw not pectinate; head naked ; nostrils imperforate; naked leg and foot < tail, . MELEAGRIs 177 
— perforate; naked leg and foot < tail, . . CATHARTES 166 
— perforate; naked leg and foot>tail, . . . . GRUS 223 
— feathered; nostrils feathered, or overhung by a scale, in deep 
fossa of stout, hard bill. (r) 
— not feathered nor scaled, in long groove of 

slender softish bill. (s) 
(rz) Toes feathered ; tarsi and nasal fossx feathered. Plumage pure white in winter, . . . . LAGOPUS 183 
— naked ; —tarsi feathered, part way down; tail of 18 soft broad feathers, .. . . . . BONASA 182 
— to the toes; tail of — 20 stiff acuminate feathers, . . . CENTROCERCUS 179 
- — 20 or 16 soft broad feathers, . . . . . . TETRAO 178 
; — 18 fthrs; neck with lanceolate feathers, CUPIDONIA 181 
E — without such feathers, PEDIG@CETES 180 
— naked; tail nearly = wing; crest — slender, clubbed, recurved, . . LOPHORTYX 186 
— full, soft, depressed, . . . . . CALLIPEPLA 187 
— ito the wing; crest — long, straight, filamentous, . . . OREORTYX 185 
— full, soft, depressed, ... . . CYRTONYX 188 
—rudimentary ornone, . .... . . . ORTYX 184 
(s) Trs. entirely reticulate; hind toe minute; bill straight, not>head,. . . . . . - » SQUATAROLA 189 
— scutellate in front only; bill much > hd. very slender, decurved, . . . . . . . . NUMENIUS 222 
— barely > hd., comparatively stout, straight,, . . HETEROSCELUS 221 
— and behind; tl. not barred; one minute web; primaries mottled, TRYNGITES 220 
—2 plain webs; b. <, or about=hd., EREUNETES 206 
—much>hd., MICROPALAMA 205 

— tl. barred crosswise with light and dark colors. (s?) 

(s?) Gape not reaching beyond base of — furrowed culmen. Under a foot long, . MACRORHAMPHUS 204 
—unfurrowed culmen. Overafootlong, . . . . . LIMOSA 213 
(s?) Gape longer. Length < 9 in.; 2t. unwebbed; bill grooved nearly to tip, . . . . . TRINGOIDES 217 
— about half-way to tip, RMYACOPHILUS 216 
—>9in.; b. not >hd., grooved 3 its length; tl. about = 4 the wg., ACTITURUS 219 
—not=ithe wing, PHILOMACHUS 218 
—> head; 2t. webbed: legs not green or yellow, SYMPHEMIA 214 
—barely or not webbed; legs green or yell., GLOTTIS 215 


64 KEY TO THE GENERA. 


(2) Forehead covered with a broad horny plate; nostrils linear, tvs. <( 2in.long, . . . . GALLINULA 243 

. —nearly circular; trs.2in.long,. . PORPHYRULA 244 

— feathered; first primary attenuate; bill straight, > hd., culm. grooved, . . . . SCOLOPAX 202 

= —8 outer primaries attenuate; bill same: tibiew feathered; trs. << 3t. . PHILOHELA 201 

— not attenuate; first primary much < second. (t) 
— =, or>,second. (u)_ 

(t) Length 2 feet or more: bill much > head, decurved; tibia half bare; trs. not << 3tcl., . . . ARAMUS 239 

—<2 feet; bill> head, decurved; tibia little bare; trs.<3tcel,. . . . + « « » « RALLUS 240 

— < head, straight: feet as before. Length 10 inches or mare, +s eet =» COREE rou 
—lessthan10inches,. . . 3 PORZANA 241 
(u) Trs. evidently < 3tcl.; tibie naked below: bill about twice = head, culm. furrowed, . GALLINAGO 203 
— feathered; b. little > head, culm. unfurrowed, . . . . ARQUATELLA 210 
2 abot =, or >, dtcl.5 trs. in front—reticulate, .. . ago » » « APHRIZA 198 
scutellate, legs raddtehs pill amulee a head: . STREPSILAS 195 

legs dark. (v) 

(v) Bill slightly curved, much > hd.; tarsus evidently > middle toe and claw, . . . ANCYLOCHEILUS 209 
—=or barely > middle toe and claw, . . . . . . PELIDNA 208 
— straight, much < head. Primaries mottled with black, . .... .. . . . » TRYNGITES 220 
— about =, or> hd; tarsus much> middle toe and claw, . .. . . . . . RINGA 2]1 
— about = middle toe and claw, . . . . . ACTODROMAS 207 


B. (The hind toe not elevated.) 


1. TIBLA NAKED BELOW. (W) 
2. NOSTRILS OPENING BENEATH SOFT SWOLLEN MEMBRANE. (x)* 
3. BILL HOOKED AND FURNISHED WITH A CERE. (y) 
4. BIRDS WITHOUT THE ABOVE CHARACTERS. (2) 
(Ww) Middle claw simple; tarsus reticulate; bill flat, spoonshaped atend, . . . .. . . . PLATALEA 227 
— not flat, very stout, tapering, decurved, . . TANTALUS 224 
— scutellate; bill grooved, curved; claws — straightish, . FALCINELLUS 225 
“ —curved, . . ... » = +. JBIsi 226 
(w) Mid. claw pectinate; tail of 10 feathers; lower neck bare behind.—Length over 18 inches, BOTAURUS 237 
—Length under 18 inches, ARDETTA 238 
—12 feathers; lateral toes not more than 4 as long as tarsus, HYDRANASSA 233 
— more than } the tarsus. (w?) 
(w?) Tibiz bare 1 inch or less ; tvs. > 3tcl.; bill over }inch deep af base, . . NYCTHERODIUS 236 
— < 3tel.; b. not thrice as long ashigh, . . . . NYCTIARDEA 235 
b. more than thrice as long as high, . . BUTORIDES 234 
—2in.or more. Lgth.2 feet orless. Blue (or white), legs blk. and blue, FLORIDA 230 
White; legs black and yellow, GARZErTA 231 
—3 feet or more. Bluish, ashy, brown, &., . . . . ARDEA 228 
White; trs.<(7in. b.<( 6, . . HERODIAS 232 
White; trs.>7in.b.>6, . . AUDUBONIA 229 


(x) Tail-feathers —12. Greenish; bird over 18 inches long,. . . Shea. « «+ « © ORTALIDA 176 
— 14, long, tapering, much graduated; cir Camorhital space eed - « « « ZENZDURA 169 
— 12; trs. fthr’d above; tail broad, rounded, much < wings, . . . . . . . COLUMBA 167 
— narrow, pointed, about = wings,. . . ECTOPISTES 168 
trs. wholly naked, — reticulate, .. . os ele nw oe oe » SOTA oe 
—scutellate in front; ait SEATS + « « « » SCARDAFELLA 173 
—rounded. (x?) 


(x?) Trs. about=3t., without claw; wing rounded, Ist primary<4th. . . . . . GEOTRYGON 174 — 


— evidently <3t.; wing pointed, and—under4incheslong, . . . . . CHAMAEPELIA 172 
—over 4; lores—naked, .. .. . MELOPELIA 171 
—feathered, . .. . . ZENADA 170 


* This membrane (not seale), which distinguishes the pigeons, shrinks in drying, when it may be recognized by its 
closing up the nostrils, or at least making them irregular ; but if still in doubt, observe tarsi reticulate on sides and 
behind, and (generally) scutellate in front. See fig. 11, b. 


KEY TO THE GENERA. 65 


(y) Nostrils at edge of the cere; eyes anterior, surrounded by radiating feathers, the anterior of which are 
bristly and hide the base of the bill; outer anterior toe shorter than inner anterior toe. (y’) 

y) Nostrils in the cere; eyes lateral, not surrounded by a disc; outer anterior toe (generally) not shorter 
than inner anterior toe. (y*) : 

(y?) Trs. naked or scant-feathered. Facial disc perfect; 3cl. somewhat pectinate,. . .. . . . S@Rrx 139 

—imperfect; 3clt simple; trs.>3tcl, . . . . SPEOTYTO 150 

—<3tel., . . . MICRATHENE 149 


—full-feathered; head tufted; tail about ?the wing. Overl8incheslong, .... . . . BuBOo 140 
—ithe wing. Underl2incheslong, . . Pas in COPS, 141i 
e — Over 12, under 18; tufts—of 8 to ‘ip fthrs., . OTus 142 


—of 3to6fthrs., BRACHYOTUS 143 

—not tufted; tail about } the wing. Length under 12inches, . . . NYCTALE 147 
—thewg. Lgth.18ormore. Pure wht., spotted, NYCTEA 145 

— Not pure white, SYRNIUM 144 


— the wg. Length over 12, under 18 inches, . SURNIA 146 

Length much under 12, . . . GLAUCIDIUM 148 

(y*) Trs. feathered to the toes—all around; tailafootormorelong, . . Pee wee AOUIEALICS 
—except a narrow strip behind: tail nota foot ine . . . ARCHIBUTEO 160 

—reticulate— upper mandible toothed, under mandible notched, nostrils circular, . . FALCcO 158 
— Claws all of same length, rounded underneath; tibial feathers close, . . PANDION 162 

— Tail emarginate, and outer feathers not longer than middle, . . .. . ELANUS 154 

—forked, outer feather about twice as long as middle, . . . . . NAUCLERUS 155 

—scutellate in front; no web at base of toes; tailafootormorelong, ... . . . HALUETUS 164 
—a web; nostrils circular; tailnot3aslongas wing, . .. . . . IcTINIA 153 

—oval; billnot }as deep at base aslong, . . ROSTRHAMUS 152 

— oval; tarsus feathered about 4 way down in front, ASTUR 157 

—hardly } way down, . . ACCIPITER 156 

—and behind —Tibial feathers not reaching below the joint, . . . . . ONYCHOTES 161 

— Bill yellowish; nost. lmear, oblique, near up. edge of cere, POLYBORUS 165 

— Face with a ruff; trs. twice 3t.; up. tail-coverts white, . . . Circus 151 


— Hawks without these characters, ....... .. +. BUTEO 159 


(Z) PRIMARIES, —10; the Ist (never spurious) always more than 3 as long as the longest. (a) 
(Z) PRIMARIES, —10; the Ist (spurious or) at most not 3 as long as the longest. (b) 
(Z) PRIMARIES,— 9; the Ist (never spurious) of variable length. (e) 
(a) Feet syndactylous; bill serrate: middle tail feathers long-exserted, . . . ... .. . . Momorus 112 
—rot serrate, middle tail feathers not exserted, . . . . . . CERYLE 113 
(a) Feet normal ; tail of 10 feathers; more than 6 secondaries ; trs. feathered; 4t. 3-jointed, . PANYPTILA 116 
—naked; tail notspiny, . NEPH@CETES 117 
—spiny, . . CH#TURA 118 
—only 6 secondaries ; bill subulate,=or>head. (a?) 
(a*) Trs. feathered. Grass-green, head striped with black and white, .... . . . HELIOPEDICA 119 
—naked; b. serrate, twice—=head. Black below,throatnot scaly, .... . . . . LAMPORNIS 120 
—not serrate; 1st primary rigid; tailtruncate. Green, .... .. . . STELLULA 123 
—notrigid; attenuate; or—rufous on sides; or crown scaly, SELASPHORUS 122 
—not attenuate; no rufous; throat green, . ARGYRTRIA 124 
—noft green, . . TROCHILUS 121 
(a) Feet normal ; tail of 12 feathers: 1st primary — attenuate; tail>wings, forficate, . . . . MILVULUS 104 
—not> wings: forked or not, TYRANNUS 105 
—not attenuate; crown plain, or full-crested. (ai) 
bak Tail =or little < wing, not forked, edged with chestnut; trs.=or>3tcl., . MYIARCHUS 106 
—slightly or not forked; not edged: trs.>3tcl., - . SAYORNIS 107 
— much < wing., a little forked; trs.<¢3tcl. Length6,ormore. . . . CONTOPUS 108 
—<or nearly =weg., barely or not forked: trs.=or>3tcl. Length 6} in.or less. (a4) 
(a*) Colors greenish, olive, ete.; no buff, red or pure brown, . . EMPIDONAX 109 
— brownish olive, etc.; buffy below. Subcrested, . MITREPHORUS 110 
— fiery (or rosy) red, and deep brown; ¢ full-crested, PYROCEPHALUS 111 
(b) Tarsus “ booted ;’ wings < tail, both much rounded; plumage remarkably lax, ... . . CHAMMA 11 
wings > tail; nostrils linear; no rictal bristles; plumage close. Aquatic, CINCLUS 7 
—not linear: taildouble-rounded, ... . . . . MYIADESTES 52 
—not double-rounded. Under5Sin.long, RreGuLusS 9 
Over 5in. long. (b?) 
(b?) Tarsus not>mid. toe andclaw. Blwethe chief color, ..... . SIALIA 6 
—>mid. toe andclaw. Noblue. Tail only 3 the wing, . SAxIconA 5 
—more than 3 the wing, TuRrpUS 1 
(b) Taraus scutellate; nostrils covered with tufts of antrorse bristly feathers. (c) 
—nostrils exposed; base of bill with few such feathers, or none. (da) 
KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 9 


66 KEY TO THE GENERA. 


(c) Bill— strongly epignathous, toothed and notched near tip. Gray, wings and tail black, . CoLLuRio 
—paragnathous. Not7in. long; b. nearly =hd., wg. much>tl,, trs.not>8tel., . . . . SITTA 
— barely or not } as long as hd.—Crested, . . LOPHOPHANES 
—Notcrested. (¢?) 
(c?) Head yellow; bend of wing chestnut, . . . . AURIPARUS 
—not yell.; crown and throat blk. or dark,. . . . PARuUS 
— crown ashy or light brown, « PSALTREPARUS 


—Over7long. Crested. Blue, with black bars on wings and tail, . CyANnurus 100 


No crest. Iridescent bik. and wht.; wgs.much<th, . . PICA 
— Uniform glossy blk.; wgs.much>tl.,. . CoRVUS 
— Gray; blk. wgs.>blk. and wht. tail, Picicorvus 


~99 


95 
96 


— Gray; no blue; wgs.about=tail, . PERISOREUS 103 
— Blue, &., no green or yellow, . . APHELOCOMA 101 
— Blue, black, green and yellow, . . . XANTHOURA 102 


(a) Length over 14 inches; color dark brown; rounded tailnot< wings, ... . . . . PSILORHINUS 
—10—12 inches; color all blue, square tail< wings, . . . oe vs «ss GYMNORIETE 
—7—S inches; glossy black (2 brown) with large white wing patch. " Greated: . PHU NOPEPLA 
—4i— 5h inches; brown, streaked, below white, tail feathers rigid, acuminate, . . . CERTHIA 
—4—5 inches; bluish gray, unstreaked, below wht., tail soft, blk. and white, . . POLIOPTILA 
—4—5in.; olive-green, below yellowish, tail like back, bill not hooked, . . PHYLLOPNEUSTE 
—4}—61; greenish or grayish olive, wht’sh or yell’sh below, bill distinctly hooked at tip, VIREO 

(da) Birds presenting no one of the foregoing combinations of characters. (d?*) 


(d®) Rictus bristled; inner toe cleft to base; wg. not<tail; b. little<head, . . . . OREOSCOPTES 
—< tail; billmuch<head, ... . . Mimus 

—little<,=, or>hd., HARPORHYNCHUS 

—unbristled; breast — with distinct round black spots; b.<chd., . . . . CAMPYLORHYNCHUS 
—unspotted; back—uniform in color; wg.>=or< tail; b.<chead, . THRYOTHORUS 

— speckled: throat pure white; b.nearly=hd., . . . CATHERPES 

— streaked; b.much<hd., . . . SALPINCTES 

— barred crosswise; tailnearly=wg.; ... . . . TROGLODYTES 

—much< wg. . . . . . ANORTHURA 

— streaked lengthwise; bill about } as long as s head, TELMATODYTES 

—hardly or not}=hd.,. CisroTHoRUS 

(e) Bill metagnathous ; both mandibles faleate, their points crossed, . . . . - » « CURVIROSTRA 
(e) Tarsus scutellate behind: hind claw straighké; nostrils concealed; little ear tufts, . « » EREMOPHILA 
(e) Quills (usually) tipped with red horny appendages ; tail tipped with yellow. Crested, . . . AMPELIS 
(e) Tomia of up. mand. toothed or lobed near middle. Bright red, or greenish and yellow, . . PYRANGA 


(e) Greenish or grayish-olive, below golden yellow, belly white, lores black. Length 7-8 inches, . ICTERIA 
(e) Greenish or grayish-olive, below white or yellow; bill notched and hooked at tip. Length 5;—63, VIREO 
(e) Birds with no one of these special characters.— Commissure* straight or gently curved, , (f) 
— Commissure* abruptly angulated. (i) 
(f) Bill triangular-depressed, about as wide at base as long, gape twice as long as culmen, reaching 
to about opposite eyes, trs. not > outer lateral toe and claw; Ist primary =or>2d. (g) 
(f) Bill not nearly so wide as long, gape not twice as long as culmen; trs.> lateral toes. (h) 
(g) Outer web of Ist primary saw-like, with a series of minute recurved hooks,. . . STELGIDOPTERYX 
(g) A little feathery tuft at base of hind toe. Plain gray, below white, breast like back, . . . COTYLE 
(g) No hooks nor tuft. Tail deeply forked, outer feathers attenuate, or with white spots, . . HIRUNDO 
— forked. Below, pure white; above, lustrous or velvety. . . TACHYCINETA 
— forked. Uniform lustrous blue-black, or partly white below, . . PROGNE 
— barely or not forked. Rump not colored like back, . . . PETROCHELIDON 
(h) Longest secondary nearly = primaries in closed wing; hind claw slightly curved, twicé as long 
as middle claw.—Tail not << wing. No spots or pueda below; “<5 “. . os » SUDREEe 
—< wing; trs.> hind toe and claw. Breast epotned, s on oe le ANS 
—not>Il1tel. Back and breast spotted, . . . . NEOCORYS 
(h) Longest secondary much < primaries in closed wing; hind claw well curved, not nearly twice 
as long as middle claw. (h?) 
(h2) Rictus with many conspicuous bristles reaching decidedly beyond nostrils. (h*) 
(h2) Rictus with no evident bristles or a few short ones reaching little if any beyond nostrils. (h*) 
(h®) Bill barely or not twice as long as wide at base; tail blk. and orange, or brn. and yell., SETOPHAGA 
(bh) Bill fully twice as long as wide; tail unmarked, or with white blotches, . . . . MYIODIOCTES 
(h‘) Trs. <, or about=3tcl.; hind toe much> its claw. Entirely blk. and wht., streaked, MNIOTILTA 
—little>its claw; breast andrump yellow, . . . CERTHIOLA 
(h‘) Trs.>3tcl.; tl. not<wgs. Olive, with yell. below, hd. of ¢ with blk. orashy, . . GEOTHLYPIS 
—<wegs.; tail feathers yellow on inner webs, dusky on outer webs, DENDROECA 
—all unmarked, same color on both webs. (h5) 
—(some or all) marked with white blotches. (h®) 


40 


* As this important distinction may not be perfectly plain to the student in some dried (especially if distorted) speci- 
imens, it may help him to be here told, that (7) will take him to the swallows and the great warbler group of little insee- 
tivorous birds; while (7) will carry him to the blackbirds, orioles, meadow starlings, cowbirds, and bobolinks, and the 


great conirostral granivorous finch family, including grosbeaks, linnets, buntings, finches, and all the sparrows. 


KEY TO THE GENERA. 
(h5) Conspicuously streaked below; crown plain, or with 2 black stripes, . . . .. . . . SEIURUS 
(h5) No streaks below; b. at least Linch long; 4 black stripes on head, ornone,. . . HELMITHERUS 
—not jinch long; wg.> 2} in.; crown plain or with black, . . . OPORORNIS 


—<2} in.; crown plain, or with bright spot, HELMINTHOPHAGA 
(h®) Rictal bristles not evident; b.at least } inch long; whole hd. and neck rich yellow, PROTONOTARIA 
bill< fin. long; whole head and neck not yellow, HELMINTHOPHAGA 


(h®) Rictal bristles evident; hind toe much> its claw. Length underSinches, .... . PARULA 

—little if any longer thanitsclaw, ... .. . . . DENDROECA 

(i) Length less than 5 in., wing and tail 2 in. or less, tail feathers acute, . . . . . . . . SPERMOPHILA 

(@) Hind claw slightly curved, twice as long as middleclaw, . . «+ » » PLECTROPHANES 

(i) Feathers of crown bristle-tipped. Streaked: below yellow, with hace i <= patch, . . STURNELLA 

(i) Longest secondary nearly = primary in closed wgs. Black, with white wing patch, . CALAMOSPIZA 

G) Conspicuously crested. Red the prevailing color. Billreddish, face black, ... . . CARDINALIS 

—not reddish, face not black, . PYRRHULOXIA 

G) Tail-feathers acute. Black, nape buff, 7; or streaked yell’sh-brn., 2; wg.>3 inches, . DoLICHONYX 

— Small streaked marsh-sparrows, wg. <3 inches, its edge yell... . AMMODROMUS 

Gi) Colors greenish and white, with yell. on edge of wing; — rufous head-stripes, . . . . EMBERNAGRA 
—crown chestnut, breast ashy ) 

Gi) Length about 8 in.; #1.>wgs. Plain brown, &c., or black, white and chestnut, , eae) LELPLEO 
(i) Inner claw euchine at least 4 way to tip of 3cl. Black, white and chestnut, i 

— Blk. (or brn.) hd. yellow; >S long, XANTHOCEPHALUS 

— Spotted and streaked; <S8long, . . . PASSERELLA 


G) Birds with none of the foregoing combinations of chars. — Bill with a ruff of antrorse bristly feathers. 
— Bill without ruff; nostrils exposed. (1) 


Ck) Length—S or more. Zed, or gray with brownish yellow onheadandrump, ... . . . PINICOLA 
—under 8. White, with bik. on wgs. and tl.; or washed with clear brown, . PLECTROPHANES 

— Bluish-gray, below reddish-gray, crown, face, wgs. & tl., blk. . . PYRRHULA 

—Reddish-brown, blk.-streaked, crown ashy, throat blk. Imported, . PASSER 

— Unstreaked, chocolate-brown, rosy-tinted, hd. with blk. and ash, LEUCOSTICTE 

— Streaked: no yell., crown crimson, face and throat dusky, . . . AEGIOTHUS 

— Streaked: no yell.; no red; or else crown, and throat too, red, . CARPODACUS 

—Streaked or not: with some yellow, butnored, . .. . . . CHRYSOMITRIS 


(1) Species at least over 7 inches long. (m) 
(1) Species at most not over 7 inches long; plumage nowhere decidedly spotted or streaked. (n) 


90 
77 
(k) 


56 
63 
57 
76 
60 
61 
58 
62 


— somewhere or everywhere spotted or streaked. (0) 


(with head and neck rich brown, ..-.. . . . MOLOTHRUS 
(m) Bill jet-black ; plumage glossy blk., | with head, neck and breast yellow, . . . . XANTHOCEPHALUS 
ealetcies G6 9 plain brown) 4 with head black, bend of wing red, . . . . . . . AGELMUS 
| with no red or yell.; tailrounded,< wg., . . SCOLECOPHAGUS 
t — graduated, =or Ses iy) se > (QUISCALUS, 

(m) Bill dark horn-blue, very acute; plumage black, with orange, yellow, or white, 4 
sess : : ICTERUS 

—plain olivaceous, yellowish below, 9@, 

— obtuse; plumage blk., white and brown, tl. with wht. spots, . . GONIAPHEA 
(m) Bill greenish-yellow, as long as tarsus; wes. black, many secondaries white, . . . HESPERIPHONA 
(m) Bill not bluish nor greenish ; tail with white spots; under wg.-coverts rosy or yellow, . GONIAPHEA 
—not rosy or yell. ; 3 yg. of, . PIPILO 
tail plain; entire plumage streaked. Qof.. . . . . AGELZUS 
(n) Black and chestnut, or orange, ¢, or olive yellowish below, 9 ; b. acute, horn lve, or brn., ICrERUS 
(m) Dusky grayish-brown, nearly uniform; bill blackish, obtuse. Qof ..... . . . MOLOTHRUS 
(n) Blackish, or ashy, belly and 1 to 3 outer tail feathers white; billfleshcolor, .... . . . JUNCO 
(n) Throat and tail black, latter with white spots: head with 2 white stripes, . . . » POOSPIZA 
(n) Blue, with or without red, purplish, &c.; or greenish and yell.; or plain brown; ‘<6 inane CYANOSPIZA 
(n) Blue, with chestnut on wings, 3; or plain brown, 9;>6long, . . + « « GONIAPHEA 
(o) Wings> tail; breast more or less yellow ; throat patch, or maxillary str Bake, black: so. . HUSPDZA 
—not yell.; wg.<24 inches, its edge yellow; tail2in. orless,. . . COTURNICULUS 
>2k in., — without yell.; lesser wg.-cov. chestnut, . . POOECETES 


with yell. or not; longest sec. nearly=prim..PASSERCULUS 
— without yell.; longest sec. much<primaries, CENTRONYX 


(©) Wings not> tail; tail forked. Lgth. 5 to6in., wg. or tl. 2} to 3, trs.¢toj, . . . . . SPIZELLA 
— graduated, tipped with wht.; head striped with chestnut and wht., CHONDESTES 

— little rounded, black, outer feather pale edged, . .-/ Fae. . «0s POOSPIZA 

—not black. Streaked below or crown chestnut, . . MELOSPIZA 


Not streaked below. Lgth.6ormore, ZONOTRICHIA 
Length under6in., . PEUCMA 


—— i 


SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS 


OF 


NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS. 


Subclass I. AVES AEREZ, or INSESSORES. 


AERIAL BIRDS, or PERCHERS. 


Tue first and highest one of three primary divisions of the classt Aves, embrac- 
ing all existing birds down to the Galline. 

The knee and part of the thigh are free from the body, and the leg is almost 
always feathered to or beyond the tibio-tarsal joint. With rare exceptions, the 
toes are all on the same level, and touch the support throughout; being thus fitted 
for grasping or perching. In other respects the members of this great group are too 
various to be defined by external characters, unless it be negatively, in the absence 
of the special features of the other two groups. They are Altrices. They are now 
usually divided into five Orders, of which the first is the 


Order PASSERES. Perchers Proper. 


The feet are perfectly adapted for grasping by the length and low insertion of 
the hind toe, great power of opposing which to the front toes, and great mobility 
of which, are secured by separation of its principal muscle from that that bends 
the other toes collectively. The hind toe is always present, and never turned for- 


* North of the present Mexican Boundary; inclusive of Lower California; exclusive of Greenland. 

+As commonly received, without recognizing, however, the fossil Archeopteryzx (see Introd. § p.12) a meso- 
zoic bird, which probably alone represents a primary group Saurure; admitting which, some high authorities 
then divide all existing birds into two other primary groups, Zatite (Ostriches), in which the sternum has no 
keel, and Carinate, embracing all other birds. On this basis, our Aves aéreaw would represent a group of less 
value than a subclass; and I desire to be understood as using this term provisionally, in a conventional sense. 


(69) 


70 OSCINES, SINGING BIRDS. 


wards or even sideways; its claw is as long as, or longer than, the claw of the 
middle toe. The feet are never zygodactyle, nor syndactyle, nor semipalmate, 
though the front toes are usually immovably joined to each other at base, for a 
part, or the whole, of the basal joints. Various as are the shapes of the wings, 

fis these members agree in having the great row of coverts not 
longer than half the secondaries; the primaries either nine 
or ten in number, and the secondaries more than six. The 
tail, extremely variable in shape, has twelve rectrices (with 
certain anomalous exceptions). The bill is too variable to 
furnish characters of groups higher than families; but it is 
always corneous, either wholly or in part, is never largely 


membranous, as in many wading and swimming birds, nor 
N\ cered, as in birds of prey. No Passeres are known to have 

Fic. 12. Passerine foot. more than one common carotid artery ; and they all have the 
sternum cast in one particular mould, with slight minor modifications of shape. 
They are the typical Jnsessores, as such representing the highest grade of develop- 
ment, and the most complex organization, of the class. Their high physical 
irritability is codrdinate with the rapidity of their respiration and circulation; they 
consume the most oxygen, and live the fastest, of all birds. They habitually reside 
above the earth, in the air that surrounds it, among the plants that with them adorn 
it; not on the ground, nor on ‘the waters under the earth.” 

Passeres, corresponding to the Insessores proper of most ornithologists, and 
comprising the great majority of birds, are divisible into two groups, commonly 
called suborders, mainly according to the structure of the lower larynx. In one, 
this organ is a complex muscular vocal apparatus; in the other the singing parts 
are less developed, rudimentary, or wanting. In the first, likewise, the tarsus is 
normally covered on either side with two entire horny plates, that meet behind 
in a sharp ridge; in the other, these plates are subdivided or otherwise differently 
arranged. This latter is about the only external feature that can be pointed out 
as of extensive applicability ; and even this does not always hold good. For 
example, among our birds, the larks (Alaudida), held to be Oscine, and certainly 
to be called songsters, have the tarsus perfectly scutellate behind. 


Suborder OSCINES. Singing Birds. 


The first and higher of the two suborders just indicated. All of the birds com- 
posing it have a more or less complex vocal apparatus, consisting of five pairs 
of muscles ; but many of them do not sing. 

It is a question, which one of the numerous Oscine families should be placed at 
the head of the series. Largely, perhaps, through the influence of those orni- 
thologists who hold that fusion of the tarsal envelope into one continuous plate 
indicates the acmé of bird-structure, the place of honor has of late been usually 


TURDIDZ, THRUSHES.—GEN. l. tt 


assigned to the thrushes. But only a part of the thrushes themselves show this 
character ; on which account, probably, the rest were associated by Cabanis with 
the wrens. It seems to me most probable that this character, though unques- 
tionably of high import, should be taken as of less value than the reduction of the 
number of primaries from ten to nine; and I am at present inclined to believe that 
eventually some Oscine family with only nine primaries—as the finches or tanagers 
—will take the leading position. Here, however, I follow usage. 


Family TURDIDA. Thrushes. 


The oval nostrils are nearly or quite reached, but not covered, by feathers. 
There are bristles in all our genera about the rictus and base of upper mandible. 
The toes are deeply cleft, the inner one almost to its very base, the outer to the 
end of its basal joint. The bill is not conical, nor deeply fissured, and usually has 
a slight notch near the tip. There are 12 tail-feathers (in all our forms), and 
10 primaries, of which the 1st is short or spurious, and the 2d is shorter than the 
4th. Our two subfamilies are sharply defined by the character of the tarsus. 


Subfamily TURDINZ. . Typical Thrushes. 


With the tarsus, in the adult, enveloped in one continuous plate, or ‘‘ boot,” 
formed by fusion of all the scutella except two or three just above the toes. Thus 
easily distinguished ; for our few other birds that show this feature are very differ- 
ent in other respects. The Ist quill is spurious or very short; the 2d is longer 
than the 6th; the 4th toe is longer than the 2d. Upwards of one hundred and 
fifty recorded species are now usually assigned to the Turdince proper, most of 
them being referable to the single genus Turdus with its subgenera. They are 
nearly cosmopolitan, and have a great development in the warmer parts of 
America, where the subfamily is, however, mainly represented by types closely 
allied to Turdus proper; more aberrant forms, constituting very distinct genera, 
occur in the old world. We have but one genus in the United States, of which the 
robin is the most familiar example, though several other species are common and 
well known birds. These are diffused over all the woodland parts of our country, 
and are all strictly migratory. They are insectivorous, but like many other insect- 
eating birds, feed much upon berries and other soft fruits. Although not truly 
gregarious, some, as the robin for instance, often collect in troops at favorite feed- 
ing places, or migrate in companies. They build rather rude nests, often plastered 
with mud, never pensile, but saddled on a 
bough, or fixed in a forked branch, or on 
the ground; and lay 4-6 greenish or 
bluish eggs, sometimes plain, sometimes 
spotted. They are all vocal, and some, 
like the woodthrush, are exquisitely melo- 
dious. 


1. Genus TURDUS Linneus. 


* Not spotted nor banded below ; throat a 
streaked. (Subgenus Planesticus.) Fie. 13. Robin; natural size. 


Fobin. Dark olive-gray, head and tail blackish; below reddish-brown, 
throat black and white, under tail coverts and crissum white with dark marks, 


a 


ie TURDIDA THRUSHES.—GEN. l. 


eyelids and tips of outer tail-feathers with white spots, bill brown or yellow, 
feet dark. Very young birds are spotted above. 9-10 long, wing 5-53, 
tail 4-44. N. Am. Nest in trees and bushes; eggs plain. WHILs., i, 35, 
pl. 2; Aup., iii, 14’pl., 142; Nurr., i, 338; Bp., 218. . MIGRATORIUS. 
Var. confinis, described from Cape St. Lucas, is paler, duller, &c. Bp., Rev. 29. 
** Banded crosswise, not spotted, below. (Subgenus Hesperocichla.) ~ 


Varied Thrush.  Slate-color, below orange-brown, with black pectoral 
band which runs up on sides of neck and head ; crissum and under tail coverts 
whitish ; eyelids, postocular stripe, 2 wing-bars and much edging of quills, 
orange-brown ; bill dark, feet pale; 9 and young, duller, browner, pectoral 
bar obscure, etc. Size of the last. Pacific slopes, N. Am.: accidental in 
Mass., N. J. and Long Island. Avp., iii, 
22, pl. 143; Bp., 219. . . . Nasvius. 

*** Spotted, not banded, below. (Sub- 
genus Hylocichla.) 

+ Upper parts not uniform in color.* 

{Upper parts tawny, shading into olive 
on rump. 

Wood Thrush. Under parts white, 
barely or not buff-tinted, marked with 
large distinct dusky spots, middle of-throat and belly only immaculate ; bill 
dusky and yellowish; legs flesh-color; 7-8 long; wing 4—44, tail 3-34. 
Eastern United States. Nest in bushes and low trees; eggs plain. WIzs., 
i, 35, pl. 2; Nurr., i, 343; Avup., iii, 24, pl. 144; Bp., 212. MusTELINUS. 


tt Upper parts olive, shading into rufous on rump and tail. 


Fig. 14. Wood Thrush; natural size. 


Hermit Thrush. Under parts white, with slight buffy tint anteriorly 
and olive shade on sides, breast and sides of throat thickly marked with 
large distinct dusky spots; bill dusky and yellowish; legs pale. About 7 
long; wing 33, tail 23. Eastern (and Arctic) North America. Nest in 
bushes; eggs plain. Wiuts., v, 95, but not his fig. 2 of pl. 45; Nurt., i, 
$46; Avup.; iii, 29, pl: 146; Bo., 212. 9. 5°. 6 7 Ge 

Var. auduboni, is entirely similar in color, but rather larger. South-west- 
ern United States into Mexico. Bp., Rev. 16. 

Var. nanus, is entirely similar in color, but rather smaller. Rocky Mountains 
to Pacific. Avp., iii, 32, pl. 147; Bp., 223; Rev. 16; Coopr., 4. 

++ Upper parts uniform in color.* 

—- Upper parts olive. 


Olive-backed Thrush. Under parts white, olive-shaded on sides, the fore 
parts and sides of head and eyelids strongly tinged with buff, the breast 


and throat thickly marked with large dusky-olive spots. 632-72 long; wing 


* Very young birds of all the species of Hylocichla are spotted above; but these spots disappear the first 
autumn, and then the ground color is always as stated. 


TURDIDZ, THRUSHES.—GEN. l. 73 


3344, tail 23-3. North America, except perhaps south-west U.S. Nest in 
bushes ; eggs speckled. Wrus., v, pl. 45, f. 2, but not his description on p. 
993 Bp., 216. rdw « te P ay . +.  SWAINSONI. 


Var. alicie. Alice’s Thrush. Similar; but without any batty tint about head, 
nor yellowish ring around eye; averaging a trifle larger, with longer, slenderer bill. 
Much the same distribution, but breeds further north. Nest and eggs similar. 
Bp., 217, and Rey. 21. 

Var. ustulatus. Similar; but with the upper parts slightly suffused with 
tawny, and the spots below smaller, fewer and paler; thus approximating to the 
following species. Nest and eggs, however, as in swainsoni. Pacific Coast, U.S. 
Norr., 2d ed. i, 400; Bp., 215; Coor., 5. 

—+—+ Upper parts tawny. 

Wilson’s Thrush. Veery. Under parts white, with olive shade on sides, 
and strong fulvous (almost pinkish-brown) tint on breast; breast and sides 
of neck with very small, sparse, sometimes indistinct dusky spots. 7-7$ 
long; wing 4—44, tail 34. Eastern N. Am. Nest built on the ground; 
eggs plain. as: v, 98, pl. 43; Nurr., i, 349; Aup., iii, 27, pl. 145; 
Bp. 214. eee ess 2. . Cll. Ch.) 6URUSEESCENS. 


Subfamily MIMIN. Mocking Thrushes. 


Distinguished from the last by having the tarsus scutellate in front, the tail 
longer and rounder (usually longer than the wings, but not so in Oreoscoptes), the 
wings shorter and rounder, with 1st primary hardly to be called spurious. Birds 
very much like overgrown wrens (with which they used to be associated), but dis- 
tinguished therefrom by more deeply cleft toes, different nostrils, and bristly rictus 
(compare diagnoses of the two families). The 
bill is usually longer, or at least slenderer, and 
more curved than in the typical thrushes: in > 
some species of Harporhynchus it attains ex- 
traordinary length and curvature. As a group 
they are rather southern, hardly passing be- 
yond the United States; and attaining their 
maximum development in Central and South 
America. The Mimine may be properly re- 
stricted to these American birds, represented Fig. 15. Bills of Harporhynchi; natural size. 
by the genera Mimus, Harporhynchus, and five or six other closely related forms. 
Upwards of forty species are recorded, about two-thirds of which are certainly 
genuine. About one-half of the current species fall in the genus Mimus alone; of 
Harporhynchus, all but one of the known species occur within our own limits. In 
their general habits they resemble the true thrushes; but they habitually reside 
nearer the ground, relying for self-preservation more upon the concealment of the 
shrubbery, than upon their own activity and vigilance. They are all melodious, 
and some, like the mockingbird, are celebrated songsters, famous for their powers 
of mimicry, and their brilliant vocal execution. In compensation, perhaps, for this 
great gift, they are plainly clad, grays and browns being the prevailing colors. The 
nest is generally placed in a bush; the eggs, four or five in number, are greenish- 
blue, plain or speckled. 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 10 


74 TURDIDZ, THRUSHES.—GEN. 2, 3. 


2. Genus OREOSCOPTES Baird. 


Mountain Mockingbird. Brownish ash, below whitish, shaded behind, 
thickly spotted with dusky; 8; wing nearly 5; tail 4. Rocky Mountain 
region of United States. ‘Aup,, ii, 194, pl. 189; Bp., 347. . MONTANUS. 

3. Genus MIMUS Boie. 

Mockingbird. Ashy gray, below white, slightly shaded across breast 
and along sides, wings and tail blackish, former with two white bars, and 
much white at base of primaries, latter with 1-3 outer feathers partly or 
wholly white. The g is known by the much greater extent of white on the 
primaries, which is the mark of a “singer,” as he is called, the 9 being 
songless, in captivity at any rate; young birds are spotted below the first 
autumn. 9-10 long; wing about 4; tail about 5 (nearly 6 in var. from 
California). Southern U.S. to Missachusetts, but not common north of 
38°; thronging the groves of the South Atlantic and Gulf States. Two or 
three broods are generally reared each season. When taken from the nest, 
the mockingbird becomes a contented captive ; and has been known to live 
many years in confinement. Naturally an accomplished songster, he proves 
an apt scholar, susceptible of improvement by education to an astonishing 
degree ; but there is a great difference with individual birds in this respect. 
Wizts., ii, 14, pl. 10, fig. 1; Aup., ii, 187, pl. 137; Bp., 344. poLyeLorrus. 


Fic. 16. Mockingbird; about j natural size. 


Catbird. Blackish-ash, or dark slate; crown and tail black; under tail 
coverts chestnut. 8-9 long; wing 33, tail 4. Eastern United States; also 
Washington Territory, Mexico, Central America and Bermuda. An abund- 
-ant and familiar inhabitant of our groves and briery tracts, remarkable for 
its harsh ery, like the mewing of a cat (whence its name), but also possessed 


TURDIDZ, THRUSHES.—GEN. 4. 


of no mean vocal powers. *,* The tarsal scutella are frequently obsolete. 
Wus., ii, 90, pl. 14, f. 3; Aup., ii, 195, pl.140; Bp., 346. CAROLINENSIS. 


4. Genus HARPORHYNCHUS Cabanis. 

* Bill equal to or shorter than head, not, or not much, curved ; tail moderately 
longer than wings. Breast spotted. 

Brown Thrush. Thrasher. Sandy Mockingbird. Reddish-brown, 
below white, with more or less tawny tinge, and thickly spotted with dark 
brown, except on throat and middle of belly, the spots lengthening into 
streaks on the sides; wings with two white bars; tail feathers with pale 
tips; bill black, yellow below; feet pale; iris yellow; about 11 long; 
wing 4, tail 5-or 6; bill nearly straight, 1 inch long. Eastern United 
States; a delightful songster, abundant in thickets, ete. Wiuus., ii, 83, pl. 
PCr isso ss . CC CCUl tC CU ehC)hC ROO. 

Var. longirostris. Long-billed Thrush. Somewhat similar; darker brown 
above; the markings below blackish ; bill longer and a little more curved. Mexico 
to the Rio Grande. Bp., 352, pl. 52; Rev., 44. 

Curve-billed Thrush. Dull grayish-brown, below whitish, breast, etc., 
spotted with color of the back, wing coverts and lateral tail feathers tipped 
with white; size of the last; bill over an inch long, and decidedly curved. 
Valley of Rio Grande and Colorado. Bp. 351, pl. 51. =. ~curvirostris. 

Cinereous Thrush. Brownish-ash, below whitish, shaded with fulvous, 
especially behind, and with brown spots; two wing-bars and tips of lateral 
tail feathers obscurely white. Rather smaller than the foregoing. Cape St. 
LIueas. bBp., Pr. Acad. Phil. 1859, 303, and Rev. 46; Exuior, pl. 1; 

CoS ofl eS CSC. SC«SCENEREUS. 

**Bill longer than head, arcuate! Tail much longer than wings. Breast not 

spotted. = 

Sickle-billed Thrush. Californian Mockingbird. Dark oily olive- 
brown, paler below, deepening into rusty brown on belly and under tail 
coverts; throat rusty whitish ; auriculars streaked : bill black, at a maximum 
of curyature, about 14 long, but very variable in length and degree of 
curve ; tarsus about 13; total length 11 or more; wing 4 or less, tail 5 or 
6 inches long. Coast region of California. Cass., Ill. 260, pl. 43; Bo., 
349; Rev. 48; Coop., 16.. a Teer REDIVIVUS. 

Var. lecontei. Lecontes Thrush. Pale ash, still paler below, shading into 
brownish-yellow on under tail coverts; throat whitish, with slight maxillary streaks ; 
bill black; no decided markings anywhere. A bleached desert race. Colorado 
Valley; only two specimens known. (Ft. Yuma, Leconte; Ft. Mojave, Cowes.) 
Bp., 350, pl. 50; Rev. 47; Coopr., 17. 

Crissal Thrush. Olive-brown, paler on throat and belly ; throat whitish 
with blackish maxillary streaks ; under tail coverts chestnut in marked con- 
trast; auriculars slightly streaked; bill black. Size of the last, or rather 
larger; tail 6 or more. Valley of Rio Grande and Colorado. Bp., 351, 
Sm rers ©OOP,, 18. . 65. 6 Me + «+ +s © Y CRISSALIS, 


in iia a i i ne A - ™ -_* | ites. ~ 
a? a a ~"TPtUhy, 
: : Oo chal] } 
> 


76 SAXICOLIDH, BLUEBIRDS.—GEN. 5, 6. 


Family SAXICOLIDA. Stone-chats and Bluebirds. 


Chiefly Old World ; represented in North America by one European straggler and 
the familiar bluebirds ; authors assign different limits to it, and frequently trans- 
pose the genera; it might come under Turdidaw 
without violence. As usually constituted, it~ 
contains upwards of one hundred species, com- * 
monly referred to about a dozen genera. Like 
most other groups of Passeres, it has never been 
defined with precision, the family being known, 
conventionally, by the birds ornithologists put 
in it. The following birds have booted tarsi; 
oval nostrils; bristled rictus; rather short, 

Fic. 17. Stone-chat; natural size. square or emarginate tail; long, pointed wings, 
with very short spurious Ist quill, and the tip formed by the 2d, 3d and 4th quills. 


5. Genus SAXICOLA Bechstein. 


Stone-chat. Wheat-ear. Adult :—ashy gray; forehead, superciliary line 
and under parts white, latter often brownish-tinted; upper tail coverts 
white, wings and tail black, latter with most of the feathers white for half 
their length; line from nostril to eye, and broad band on side of head, black ; 
bill and feet black ; young everywhere cinnamon-brown, paler below ; wing 
34, tail 24, tarsus 1; middle toe and claw 3. Atlantic coast, astray from 
Europe vid Greenland; also, North Pacific Coast, from Asia. Cass., IIl., 
208, pl. 34; Bp., 220, and Rev..61.. 9. . . | . 3 2 ¢NGeeaee 


6. Genus SIALIA Swainson. 


*.* More or less blue: bill and feet black; 2 grayish or brownish, with blue 
traces, especially on rump, wings and tail. Young like the ¢, but curiously 
spotted. 6-7 long, wing 33-44, tail 27-3}, bill + or less, tarsus ? or less. 

Eastern Bluebird. @& rich sky-blue, uniform above; below reddish- 
brown, belly white. Eastern U. S. Wits. i, 56, pl. 3; Nurr. i, 445; 
ii, 171, pl. 184; Bp., 222. 5) he hes Se ee ey Eee SIALIS. - 

Western Bluebird.  % above, and the throat, deep blue, with a dorsal 
patch of same color as breast and sides, which are rather darker than in the 
last species ; belly dull bluish-gray. Rocky Mountains to Pacific. Nurr., 
i, 513; Avp., ii, 176, pl. 185; Bp., 223 ; Coor.,28. . = ieee 

Arctic Bluebird. @g everywhere clear pale blue, with a faint green 
shade, paler below, fading into white on belly. Chiefly central region of 
N. A., from 65° into Mexico; also Pacific coast. Nurr., 514; Aup., il, 
178, pl. 136; Bo.;, 2245 'Coor., 29.7 00.3) 2 ee 


Family CIN CLIDA. Dippers. 


Aquatic! thrush-like birds (formerly included under Turdide), with thickset 
bodies, compact plumage to resist water, short, stiff, concave wings, with 10 prima- 


INCLIDZ, DIPPERS. SYLVIIDE, SYLVIAS.—GEN. 7, 8. (fi 


ries of which the ist is spurious, still shorter, square tail, almost hidden by the 
coverts, linear nostrils, slender bill, almost a little turned up (gonys convex, cul- 
men slightly concave), with no trace of rictal bristles. There is only one genus, 
with about a dozen species, all inhabiting clear mountain streams of most parts of 
the world, easily progressing under water; feed on 
aquatic animal substances; moderately vocal; our 
= builds a remarkable and elegant dome-like == 
nest of moss, with a hole in one side. 


7. Genus CINCLUS Bechstein. 


Water Ouzel. Dipper. Lead-colored, nearly = Fs: 15 Dipper; natural size, 
uniform, but apt to be brownish on head; 7; wing 34; tail 24. Rocky 
Mountain region of N. A. Nurr., ii, 569; Aun., ii, 182, pl. 137; Bp., 
229; Coopr., 25. Pee CC. Cd Cg «| MEXICANUS. 


Family SYLVIIDA:.. Sylvias. 


A large family, chiefly Old World, sparingly represented in the New. Primaries 
10, the 1st short or spurious, about half the 2d, which is shorter than the 6th; 
bill slender, about-straight, shorter than the head, usually slightly notched and 
hooked at tip; rictus bristly; nostrils exposed, or slightly overhung, but never 
densely hidden: part have booted tarsi, and these are difficult to distinguish 
technically from Turdine and Sazicolide, but here size is a good criterion, none 
of our Sylviide being over five inches long; the rest, with scutellate tarsi, are of 
course distinguishable on sight from the last mentioned families; from the 
Certhiide, by not having stiff acuminate tail-feathers; from the Paride and 
Sittide by not having densely feathered nostrils; from the Tvroglodytide, by the 
less cohesion of the toes at base; and from all the Sylvicolide by having more 
than nine primaries. Three subfamilies occur in North America; one of them, 
Polioptiline, peculiar to this country, used to be associated with the Paride, with 
which, however, it has no special affinity; another, Reguline, is simply warblers 
with booted tarsi; a third, Sylviinew, with its several not well defined groups, con- 
stitutes an immense assemblage of upwards of five hundred recorded species, 
among them the famous nightingale of Europe. 


Subfamily SYLVIINA. Typical Old World Warblers. 


Represented in North America by a single waif from Asia. 


8. Genus PHYLLOPNEUSTE Meyer. 


Kennicotts Sylvia. Olive-green; below yellowish and white; super- 
ciliary line yellow; wings and tail dusky, olive-edged ; wing coverts yellow- 
ish-tipped. 43; wing 23; tail 2. Alaska (Dall). Bop., Trans. Chicago 
Acad., 1869, 313, een ee ee ee a. ts) OROREALIS, 


Subfamily REGULINA. SKinglets. 


Tarsus booted; wings longer than the emarginate tail. Elegant greenish-olive 
pigmies, with brilliant colors on the head when adult. ‘There are about ten species 
of the following genus, inhabiting Europe, Asia and America; two of them are 


78 REGULINA, KINGLETS. POLIOPTILINA, GNATCATCHERS.—GEN. 9, 10. 


very common in our woods, thickets and orchards. Migratory, insectivorous ; 
have a sweet song. 


9. Genus REGULUS Cuvier. 

*.* Greenish-olive, below whitish or yellowish; wings and tail dusky, edged 
with greenish or yellowish, wing coverts whitish-tipped. 4-41 long, wing 23-24; 
tail 14-14. ~ 

Ruby-crowned Iinglet. Crown witha rich scarlet patch (in oth sexes, 
but wanting in both the first year) ; no black about head ; bill and feet black. 
North America. W41s., i, 83, pl. 5, 
f. is Nor. i, 415}: A0opy, aoe, 
pl. 1383; Bp., 227. . CALENDULUS. 

Golden-crowned HHinglet. Crown 
bordered in front and on sides by 
black, inclosing a yellow and flame 
colored patch (in the g¢; in the 9, 
the scarlet wanting) ; extreme fore- 
head, and line over eye, whitish; 
young, if ever without traces of black 
and yellow on the head, may be told 
from the last species, by smaller size 
and presence of a tiny bristly feather 


overlying the nostrils; this is want- Fic. 19. Golden- crowned Kinglet. 
ing in calendulus. North America. Whuts., i, 126, aa 8, f..2 ; Ate ene 
265 spl, IB2ssD Di 2 Zi ae 28 tres ‘ . .) « Sa 


Ops. Cuvier’s Kinglet (2. cuvieri Aun., ii, ne 7 131; Norr., i, 416, Schuyl- 
kill River, June, 1812), not now known, is said to have two black stripes on each 
side of head. A. tricolor Nurr:, i, 420, is R. satrapa; so is his R. cristatus, which 
is the name of the European species, not found in North America. 


Subfamily POLIOPTILINA.  Gnateatchers. 


Tarsus not booted, and wings not longer than the rounded tail; bill slender (too 
thick in the figs.), depressed and well bristled at base; tip evidently overhanging 
(not in the figs.) ; tarsus long, slender; toes very short. Delicate little woodland 
birds, peculiar to America; migratory, insectivorous, very active and sprightly, 
with sharp, squeaking notes. There are about a dozen, chiefly Central and South 
American, species of the single 


10. Genus POLIOPTILA Sclater. 

*,* Bluish-ash, paler or white below; tail black and white; wings dusky, edged 
with hoary white ; bill and feet black; only 4—44 long ; wing scarcely 2, tail rather 
more. 

Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. Clear ashy blue, bluer on head; forehead, and 
line over eye, black (wanting in 9): outer tail feather white. United 
States to Mass.; Arizona; Mexico. WHus., ii, 164, pl. 18, f. 3; Nurr., 1, 
297; 2d ed., i, 327; Aup., i, 244, pl. 70; Bp., 380; Coor., 35. camULEBA: 


PARIDZ, TITMICE, OR CHICKADEES.—GEN. ll. 79 


Black-headed Gnatcatcher. @ bluish-ash, with whole crown black. 9 
with crown like back; outer tail feather white-edged only. Southwest 
United States. Cass., Ill., 164, pl. 27; Bp., 382; Coor., 31. MELANURA. 

Plumbeous Gnatcatcher. Duller 
leaden gray; crown like back; a 
white, and also a black (latter not 
in Q) superciliary line; whole outer 
web of outer tail feather, and its tip 

- for some distance, white. Arizona. 
Bp., 382; Coor., 37. . PLUMBEA. 


Family CHAMAIDE. Wren- | 
tits. 
Recently framed for a single species, 
= i = ; Fic. 20. Under ae blue-gray gnatcatcher; upper 
much like a titmouse in general appear- fg., diack-headed gnatcatcher; ¢, tail of the same; d, 
ance, but with the tarsus not evidently tail of plumbeous gnateatcher: all of natural size. 
seutellate in front; rounded wings much shorter: than the graduated tail; lores 
bristly, and plumage extraordinarily soft and lax. With the general habits of 
wrens, with which the species was formerly associated. 


ll. Genus CHAMZAA Gambel. 


Fasciated Tit, or Ground Wren. Dull grayish or olivaceous-brown, 
below paler and more fulvous; throat and breast streaked with darker ; 
wings and tail brown, obscurely waved with dusky; whitish ring round 
eye; iris white. 54-6; wing only 24-24, tail 34; the graduation an inch. 
Coast region of California. A curious bird, with no special resemblance to 
any other species. Cass., Ill., 36, pl. 7; Bp., 370; Coop., 39. Fascrata. 


Family PARIDZA. Titmice, or Chickadees. 


Ours are all small (under 7 in. long) birds, at once distinguished by having 10 
primaries, the 1st much shorter than the 2d; wings barely or not longer than the 
tail; tail-feathers not stiff nor acuminate; tarsi scutellate, longer than the middle 
toe, anterior toes much soldered at base; nostrils concealed by dense tufts, and 
bill compressed, stout, straight, unnotched and much shorter than the head ; charac- 
ters that readily marked them off from all their allies, as wrens, creepers, etc. 
Really, they are hard to distinguish, technically, from jays; but all our jays are 
much over 7 inches long. 

They are distributed over North America, but the crested species are rather 
southern, and all but one of them western. Most of them are hardy birds, endur- 
ing the rigors of winter without inconvenience, and as a consequence, none of 
them are properly migratory. They are musical, after a fashion of their own, 
chirping a quaint ditty ; are active, restless, and very heedless of man’s presence ; 
and eat everything. Some of the western species build astonishingly large and 
curiously shaped nests, pensile, like a bottle or purse with a hole in one side; 
others live in knotholes, and similar snuggeries that they are said to dig out for 
themselves. They are very prolific, laying numerous eggs, and raising more than 
one brood a season; the young closely resemble the parents, and there are no 


’ 


80 PARINE, TRUE TITMICE.—GEN. 12. 


obvious seasonal or sexual changes of plumage. All but one of our species are 
plainly clad; still they have a pleasing look, with their trim form and the tasteful 
colors of the head. 


Subfamily PARIN Al. True Titmice. 


Exclusive of certain aberrant forms, usually allowed to constitute a separate 
subfamily, and sometimes altogether removed from Paride, the 'Titmice compose 
a natural and pretty well defined group, to which the foregoing diagnosis and re- 
marks are particularly applicable. There may be about seventy-five good species 
of the Parine, thus restricted, most of them falling in the genus Parus, or in its 
immediate neighborhood. With few exceptions they are birds of the northern 
hemisphere, abounding in Europe, Asia and North America. The larger proportion 
of the genera and species inhabit the Old World ; all those of the New World occur 
within our limits, except two— Psaltriparus melanotis and Parus meridionalis, 
which are Mexican, though they have been lately included in our systematic works. 
The former is a very distinct and beautiful species; the latter is perhaps only a 
southern variety of the common Chickadee. : 


12. Genus LOPHOPHANES Kaup. 

*,*Conspicuously crested. Leaden-gray, often with a faint olivaceous shade, 
paler or whitish below ; wings and tail unmarked. (All the figures are of natural 
size.) 

Tufted Titmouse. Forehead alone black; nearly white below; sides 
washed with rusty-brown; feet leaden-blue. Young birds have the crest 
plain, thus resembling the next species; but they are 
nearly white below, the sides showing rusty traces. 
Largest of our species of the family, 6-63; wing 3-34, 
tail about the same. Eastern United States, north to 
Long Island; “Nova Scotia” (Aud.). Wuts., i, 137, pl. 
8, f. 5; Aup., ii, 143, pl. 125; Bp., 384. BICOLOR. 

Plain Titmouse. Plain leaden gray with faint olive 
shade, merely paler below; no markings anywhere. 
54-6; wing and tail about 2?. New Mexico, Arizona and California. 
Cass., Ill., p. 19; Bp., 386; Exxior, pl. 3; Coor., 42. ._. INORmamoEe 

Black-crested Titmouse. Size of the last, or rather less; similar to the 


Fic. 21. Tufted Titmouse. 


BEA 


Wty 


Fic. 22. Plain Titmouse. Fic. 23. Black-crested Titmouse. Fig. 24. Bridled Titmouse. 


first in color, but forehead whitish, and whole crest black. Valley of the 
Rio Grande. Cass., p. 18, pl. 3; Bp., 385; Coor., 43. ATRICRISTATUS. 
Bridled Titmouse. Olivaceous-ash; below soiled whitish; chin and 


PARIDE, TITMICE OR CHICKADEES.—GEN. 13, 14. 81 


throat pure black; sides of head and neck white, commonly striped with 
black in'two or three places; crest like back, margined with black ; smallest ; 
5-54; wing and tail about 24; young with the 
black head-markings obscure. New Mexico, 
Arizona, and southward. Cass., Ill., 19; Bop., 
386; Coop., 43. . . . - . WOLLWEBERI. 


13. Genus PARUS Linneus. 

* Crown and nape, with chin and throat, black, 
separated by ashy or whitish; above brownish or 
erayish ash, often with faint olivaceous tinge ; below 
whitish or rusty or brownish shaded on sides ; wings 
and tail plain, more or less whitish-edged. ‘ 

+ No white superciliary line. 


Titmouse. Black-capped Chickadee. Average 
dimensions : —Length 54; extent 84; wing and 
tail, each, 2$; tarsus 7-10. Hatremes:— 
Length 43-53; extent 74-84; wing and tail 
24-22; tarsus 3-3. North America. Every- saa aL eee 
where abundant. Wus., i, 137, pl. 8,f.4; Aup., ii, 146, pl. 126; Nurr., 
weeeeo ae. G90, . . . ate . . ATRIOAPIEE US: 


Var. SEPTENTRIONALIS. Long-tailed Chickadee. Averaging larger; paler below, 
and less shaded on sides; wings and tail much edged with whitish; tail longer 
compared with the wings (nearly or quite 3). Missouri and Rocky Mountain re- 
gion. Cass., Ill., 80, pl. 14; Bp., 389. 

Var. CAROLINENSIS. Carolina Titmouse. Averaging smaller than P. atrica- 
pillus; wings and tail less edged with whitish. Eastern United States, southerly. 
AvwD., ii, 152, pl. 127; Bp., 392. 

Var. OCCIDENTALIS. Western Titmouse. Size of the first; said to be darker, 
with longer tarsi. Pacific Coast. Bp., 391. 

+7 A distinct white line in the black over eyes and across forehead. 

Mountain Chickadee. Otherwise exactly like P. atricapillus. Rocky 
Mountains to Pacific. Bp., 394; Exuiot, pl. 2; Coor., 46. . MONTANUS. 

** Body with chestnut brown; chin and throat brownish-black. 

Hudsonian Chickadee. Pale olive-brown; crown similar but browner ; 
below on sides, and behind, pale chestnut. About 5; wing 24, tail 23. 
British America into Northern States (Alaska, Dall). Avp., ii, 155, pl. 
123; Bpo., 395. Var. Jittoralis is described from Nova Scotia. HUDSONIUS. 

Chestnut-backed Chickadee. Crown, nape and throat alike in color, sooty ~ 
brown; back and sides chestnut. Under 5; wing 24, tail less. Pacific 
coast. AUD., ii, 158, pl. 129; Bpo., 394; Coop., 47. . . . RUFESCENS. 


14. Genus PSALTRIPARUS Bonaparte. 


Dwarfs among pygmies! 33-4} long; wing 2 or less, tail 2 or more; ashy or 
KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 11 


82 SITTIDZ, NUTHATCHES.—GEN. 15, 16. 


olive gray; paler (whitish, etc.) below. Both species are western; these and 
Auriparus flaviceps build the curious pensile nests above mentioned. 
Least Titmouse. Crown dark brown, unlike back. Pacific coast to 
Sierra Nevada. Avp., ii, 160, pl. 130; Bp., 397; Coop., 48. . MINIMUS. 
Leaden Titmouse. Crown like back. Iris brown or yellow. Arizona. 
Bp., 398; Coor., 49. =. 07. gehen ee 


15. Genus AURIPARUS Baird. 


Yellow-headed Titmouse. Ashy; paler below; head all yellow (this color 
wanting in the young) ; bend of wing chestnut; 43; wing and tail about 24. 
Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, South and Lower California. Bp., 400, and 
Rev., 85; Coop.,:51.. 35 serie ok BA ea 


Family SITTIDA. Nuthatches. 


These birds differ in so many respects from either Certhiide or Paride, with both 
of which they have been associated, that I shall give them independent family rank. 
Cuars.— Bill subcylindrical, tapering, compressed, slender, acute, nearly or about 
as long as the head, culmen and commissure about straight, gonys long, convex, 
ascending (giving a sort of recurved look to a really straight bill). Nostrils 
rounded, concealed by bristly tufts. Wings long, pointed, with 10 primaries, the 
1st very short or spurious ; tail much shorter than wings, broad, soft, nearly even ; 
tarsus shorter than the middle toe and claw, scutellate in front; toes all long, 
with large, much curved, compressed claws; 1st toe and claw about equal to the 
3d; 2d and 4th toes, very unequal in length; plumage compact; body flattened ; 
tongue horny, acute, barbed. Nuthatches are amongst the most nimble and adroit 
of creepers; they scramble about and hang in every conceivable attitude, head 
downwards as often as otherwise. This is done, too, without any help from the 
tail—the whole tarsus being often applied to the support. They are chiefly insec- 
tivorous, but feed also on hard fruits; and get their English name from their habit 
of sticking nuts and seeds in cracks in bark, and hammering away with the bill till 
they break the shell. They are very active and restless little birds, quite sociable, 
often going in troops, which keep up a continuous noise; lay 4—6 white, spotted 
eggs, in hollows of trees. The family is a small one, of less than thirty species, 
among them a single remarkable Madagascan form, Hypherpes, a genus peculiar 
to Australia (Sittella), and another confined to New Zealand (Acanthisitta) : but 
it is chiefly represented by the genus Sitta, with 12 or 14 species, 8 or 9 of Europe 
and Asia, and the following of our country : — 


16. Genus SITTA Linneus. 


* White below, flanks and under tail coverts washed with rusty brown; ashy- 
blue above, middle tail feathers the same, other 
tail feathers black, spotted with white; crown 
and nape glossy black, without stripes; wings 
varied with black, white and the color of the 
back. Large; 51-6; wing 33, tail 2. 


Fic. 26. Se ees Nuthatch; nat. size. White-bellied Nuthatch. As above; bill 
over 15-100 deep at base. In the young and many ¢’s, black of head 


SITTIDZ, NUTHATCHES. CERTHIID, CREEPERS.—GEN. 16. 83 


restricted to nape, or altogether absent. Eastern United States to the 
Plains. Wuts., i, p. 40; ‘Nurr. , ty Gob: Aup., iv, 175; pl. 247; Bp., 
oe a) st a 2 ae = CAROUINENEIS. 

Var. acuLeatTa. Slender-billed Nuthatch. Exactly like the last, except slen- 
derer bill; not over 15-100 deep at base. Plains to Pacific. Bp., 375; Coopr., 54. 

** Rusty brown below, nearly uniform; back bluer than in the last, head with 
white stripes, crown black or like back; tail as in the last; wings plain; medium 
in size; 43 to nearly 5; wing 22, tail 1}. 

Red-bellied Nuthatch.  & with crown glossy black, bordered by white 
stripes meeting across forehead, below these a black bar through eye to 
hind nape, below this, and the chin, white. ¢ with crown like back, and the 
lateral black stripe merely dusky ; young with no 
black on the crown and lateral stripes obscure. 
North America, but rather northerly. Wus., i, 
£05 plo 2; Norr., 1, 583; Aup., iv, 179, pl. 248; 


ees Ses Cw CCS. SCCANADENSIS. 
HEE > } 7 . no 
Pale rusty or brownish white below ; WiNZS, yg. 27, Red-bellied Nuthatch; 
tail and back, much as in the last; crown and nape natural size. 


brown to below eyes, the lower border darker; head without white stripes. Small- 
est; 4, or less, long; wing 23, tail 11. 

Brown-headed Nuthatch. Crown clear hair-brown; a distinct little 
whitish spot on nape; middle tail feathers like back, with no black, and 
little or no white at base. South Atlantic States, strictly. Wus., ii, 105, 
eeeewuerr.. 1, 9045 Aup., ii, 181, pl. 249; Bp., 377, . . PUSILLA. 

Pygmy Nuthatch. Crown dull olive brown, its lateral borders blackish : 
the nuchal whitish spot wanting or obscure; middle tail feathers white at 
base, and there black-edged on outer web. This species is apt to be quite 
brownish underneath, instead of merely muddy white, as in the last; but 
both vary much in this respect. Rocky Mountains to Pacific, United States. 
mains tos, pl. 250; Bp., 378; Coor., 55. . .-. . . . PYGMMA. 


Family CERTHITIDZA. Creepers. 


A very small, well-marked group, of about a dozen species, and four or five 
genera, which fall in two sections, commonly called subfamilies; one of these, 
Tichodromine, is represented by the well known European Creeper, 7. muraria, and 
several, chiefly Australian, species of the genus Climacteris; while the genus Cer- 
thea, with five or six species or varieties, and one or two allied genera (all but one 
Old World) constitutes the 


Subfamily CERTHIINA. Typical Creepers. 


Our species may be known on sight, among North American Oscines, by its 
rigid, acuminate tail-feathers, like a woodpecker’s. Besides :—bill about equal to 
head, extremely slender, sharp and decurved; nostrils exposed; tarsus shorter 
than 3d toe and claw, which is connate for the whole of the 1st joint, with both 
2d and 4th toe; 1st toe shorter than its claw; claws all much curved and very 
sharp ; tarsus scutellate ; wings 10-primaried, 1st very short, not one-half the 2d, 


84 TROGLODYTIDZ, WRENS.— GEN. 17. 


which is less than the 3d; point of wing formed by 3d, 4th and 5th quills; tail 
rounded, equal to or longer than wing. Restless, active little forest birds that 
make a living by picking bugs out of cracks in bark. In scrambling about, they 
use the tail as woodpeckers do, and never hang head downwards, like the nut- 
hatches. Lay numerous eggs in knotholes ; 
not migratory ; no song; slight seasonal or. 
sexual changes of plumage. 


17. Genus CERTHIA Linnzus. 


Brown Oreeper. Plumage above sin- 
gularly barred with dusky, whitish, 
tawny or fulvous brown, and bright 
brown—latter chiefly on the rump; below, white, either pure or soiled, 
and generally slightly brownish-washed behind; wings dusky, oddly varied 
with tawny or whitish bars and spots; tail plain; about 53; wing and tail 
about 22. North America. Wius., i, 122, pl. 8; Nurr.; Aup., ii, 109; 
pl. 115s Bos, BT 25-455 wo ee) a ue Be ee rate 


Fic.28. Brown creeper; nat. size. 


Family TROGLODYTIDA. Wrens. 


Embracing a number of forms assembled in considerable variety, and difficult to 
limit with precision. Closely related to the last two or three families ; known from 
these by non-acuminate tail feathers and exposed nostrils. Very intimately re- 
sembling, in particular, the mocking group of thrushes—those with scutellate tarsi - 
and not strictly spurious first primary ; but all our wrens are smaller than any of the 
Mimine, and otherwise distinguished by less deeply cleft toes, as stated on p. 73; 
“the inner toe is united by half its basal joint to the middle toe, sometimes by 
the whole of this joint; and the second joint of the outer toe enters wholly or 
partially into this union, instead of the basal only.” Nostrils narrowly or broadly 
oval, exposed, overhung by a scale resembling that of the Gallinw; bill rather or 
very slender, straight or slightly decurved, from half as long to about as long as 
the head, unnotched in all our genera; no evident rictal bristles: wings short, 
more or less rounded, primaries 10, the 1st short, but not strictly spurious; tail 
variable in length, much or little rounded: tarsus scutellate, hind toe very long. 

Excluding certain Old World forms sometimes placed with the Wrens, but prob- 
ably better assigned elsewhere; and excepting the European wren and its con- 
geners, the T’roglodytide are confined to America. If thus restricted, the family is 
susceptible of more exact limitation, as shown by Baird in his elaborate ‘ Review’ 
(p.91). There are about a hundred recognized species or varieties, usually referred 
to about sixteen genera or subgenera; most of these belong to tropical America, 
where the family reaches its maximum development; for instance, over twenty 
species of Campylorhynchus alone are described. Of the North American forms, 
genera 18, 19 and 20 are confined to the West, and represent a section distin- 
guished by the breadth of the individual tail feathers, which widen noticeably 
towards the tip. Species of all our other genera are common and familiar eastern 
birds, much alike in disposition, manners and habits; the house wren may be taken 
to typify these. They are sprightly, fearless and impudent little creatures, apt to 
show bad temper when they fancy themselves aggrieved by cats or people, or any- 


TROGLODYTIDZ, WRENS.—GEN. 18, 19, 20. 85 


thing else that is big or unpleasant to them; they quarrel a good deal, and are 
particularly spiteful towards martins and swallows, whose homes they often invade 
and occupy. . Their song is bright and hearty, and they are fond of their own 
music; when disturbed at it, they make a great ado with noisy scolding. Part of 
them live in reedy swamps and marshes, where they hang astonishingly big globular 
nests, with a little hole in one side, on tufts of rushes, and lay six or eight dark 
colored eggs; the others nest anywhere, in shrubbery, knotholes, hollow stumps 
and other odd nooks. Nearly all are migratory; one is stationary; one comes to 
us in fall from the north, the rest in spring from the south. Insectivorous, and 
very prolific, laying several sets of eggs each season. Plainly colored, the browns 
being the usual colors; no red, blue, yellow or green in any of our species. 


18. Genus CAMPYLORHYNCHUS Spix. 


Brown-headed Creeper Wren. Brown, conspicuously white-streaked, 
crown brown, plain; below whitish becoming pale brownish behind, with 
many very distinct round black spots, largest and closest on throat and 
breast ; tail feathers black, only the outer and central pair with more than 
one white bar on the inner web. Largest of all, 8; wing and tail about 33. 
South-western United States, and southward. Cass., Ill., 156, pl. 25; 
COG E. Glo. « . « « « » «. « «+ « BRUNNEICAPILLUS. 

Allied Creeper Wren. Similar; smaller; fewer and smaller black spots 
on breast; tail feathers all with white bars or spots on both webs. Cape 
St. Lucas, Xantus, Proc. Acad. Philada., 1859, p. 298; Exuiot, pl. 3; 
Bp., Rev. 100; Coor., 62. <A variety of the last? Be oe aide AORENIES : 


19. Genus SALPINCTES Cabanis. 


fiock Wren. Brownish-gray, often obsoletely waved with lighter and 
darker shades, becoming cinnamon or fulvous-brown on rump, everywhere 
speckled with black and white dots; below whitish, throat and breast 
. obscurely streaked with dusky; belly and sides fulvous-brown-tinted, under 
tail coverts blackish-barred; wings dusky, obscurely waved with paler, 
chiefly on outer webs; middle tail feathers barred like wings, others with 
broad subterminal black bar and fulvous tip; outer feather often with 
several such markings. 53-6; wings 23, tail 24; all the markings are 
obscure and blended; the brown has often a slight pinkish shade. Central 
and Rocky Mountain region of the United States into Mexico. (Myiothera 
obsoleta, Bonar., Am. Orn., i, 6, pl. 1, f. 2.) Nurr., i, 435; Avp., ii, 
emits, Go0 5 COOP.,65,.. .9 2. . . -. « » » OBSOLETA. 


20. Genus CATHERPES Baird. 


Mexican or White-throated Wren. Brown, grayer towards and on head, 
becoming rich ferruginous or brownish-red behind, both above and below; 
chin and throat pure white; back and crown finely speckled with black 
and white dots; wings dusky, waved with brown; tail rich brown, like the 
rump and belly, with numerous narrow distinct black bars; belly waved 
or speckled with dusky and whitish; bill long (# or more), extremely 


86 TROGLODYTIDH, WRENS.—GEN. 21, 22. 


slender; 5-54; wing 24, tail 24. South-western United States and south- 
ward. Cass., Ill., 173, pl. 30; Bp., 856; Coor., 66. . . MEXICANDS. 


21. Genus THRYOTHORUS Vieillot. 


* Tail not longer than wings, all its feathers reddish-brown with numerous fine 
black bars. r 

Carolina Wren. Clear reddish-brown, slightly grayer on head, brightest 
on rump; below tawny of varying shade; long conspicuous supereiliary 
line white or tawny; wings edged 
with color of back, and dusky waved ; 
wing coverts usually whitish spotted ; 
under tail coverts usually blackish 
barred; sides of body unmarked. 
54 to nearly 6; wings 24, tail rather 
less. Eastern United States, rather 
southern; north to Connecticut, and 
scarcely or not migratory; winters 
at Washington, D. C. <A voluble 
songster. Wiuts., ii, 61, pl, 20 
5; Norr., 1, 429; App. oie 
pl. 117; Bo., 8361. Lwupovicranus. 

Var. BERLANDIERI. Berlandier’s 
Wren. Similar; rather smaller; bill 
larger; darker, especially below; sides 
dusky-barred. Near Mexican boundary. 
A geographical race of the last, with 
which it is perfectly connected, according to Mr. Allen, by intermediate Floridan 
specimens. Bp., 362, pl. 83, f. 1; Rev. 124. 

** Tail longer than wings ; its feathers mostly black. 

Bewick’s Wren. Grayish-brown ; below ashy-white; superciliary line 
white ; wings dusky, faintly waved; under tail coverts dark-barred; two 
middle tail feathers like back, with numerous fine black bars, others black, 
several of the lateral with white or gray spots or tips. 54; extent 63; 
wings little or not over 2, tail 24. United States, southern; in New Mexico 
and Arizona, whiter below (var. leucogaster) ; on Pacific coast, grayer above 
and bill longer (var. spilurus). Nurr., i, 484; Aup., ii, 120, pl. 118; 
Bp., 303; Rev. 126; -Coor., 69,625. 28. ee ER, 


res 


Fic. 29. Caro 


lina Wren. 


22. Genus TROGLODYTES Vieillot. 


House Wren. Brown, brighter behind; below rusty-brown, or grayish- 
brown, or even grayish-white ; everywhere waved with darker shade, very 
plainly on wings, tail, flanks and under tail coverts; breast apt to be darker 
than either throat or belly; bill less than head, about half an inch long; 
wings and tail nearly equal, about 1§-24$; total length from 44-54 (aver- 
age 4$). Eastern United States, very abundant anywhere. W11S., ii, 129, 


TROGLODYTID®, WRENS.—GEN. 23, 24. 87 


pl. 8; Nurrt., i, 422; Aup., ii, 125, pl. 120; Bp., 367. Very variable in 
precise tint, distinctness of the barring, etc. ; old spring birds are apt to be 
grayer and clearer below; young fall specimens are usually browner. 7’. 
americanus AuD., as I have said (Proc. Essex Inst. v, 1867, 278; specimen 
in my cabinet, personally identified by Audubon ; see also Maynarp, Guide, 
p- 95), is not otherwise different, and I shall now drop it. . . . DON. 


Var. parkmanni Aup. On an average, grayer and paler. Western United 
States (see Cours, Proc. Acad. Phil., 1866, p. 43). Bp., 367; Coopr., 71. 


23. Genus ANORTHURA Rennie. 


Winter Wren. Deep brown, darkest on head, brightest on rump and 
tail, obscurely waved with dusky and sometimes with whitish also; tail like 
rump; wings dusky, edged with 
color of back, and dark barred; 
several outer primaries also whitish 
barred ; a superciliary line, and ob- 
scure streaks on sides of head and 
neck, whitish; below pale brown; 
belly, flanks and under tail coverts 
strongly barred with dusky and 
whitish. Only 4-44 long; extent Ae 
64-63 ; wing 2 or less, tail 14 or Fic. 30. Winter Wren. 
less—so short that the outstretched feet reach beyond it. Tarsus and 
middle toe and claw together about 14; bill 2. North America; United 
States in winter. Sylvia hyemalis, Wis., i, 139, pl. 8, f. 6; Trog. 
hyemalis, Aup., ii, 128, pl. 121; Bo., 369; Trog. europeus, Nurtt., i, 
427. Var. pacificus is described; Bp., Rev. 145. . . . ‘TROGLODYTES. 

Alaskan Wren. “Form like that of the winter wren;” size and colors 
nearly the same; darker; bill larger; culmen, gape and gonys almost per- 
fectly straight —latter slightly ascending. St. George’s Island, Bering’s 
Sea. One specimen known. A variety of the last? Bp., Trans. Chic. 
MEMni oO, f2c. . . . . . « . » « + ADASCENSIS. 


24. Genus TELMATODYTES Cabanis. 


Long-billed Marsh Wren. Above clear brown, unbarred, back with a 
black patch containing distinct white streaks, crown brownish-black, super- 
ciliary line to nape white: wings not noticeably barred, but outer webs of 
inner secondaries blackish ; tail brown, dusky barred ; 
below dull white, often quite pure, the sides alone 
brownish-washed, and under tail coverts somewhat 
barred.. 43-53 long; wing about 2, tail less, tarsus 
ote 31. Long-billed Marsh 4-43 bill $ or more, barely curved. North America ; 

cae particularly reedy swamps and marshes of United 
States, abundant. Whts., ii, 58, pl. 12, f. 4; Nurr., i, 489; Auwp., ii, 
135, pl. 123; Bo., 364; var. paludicola, Bp., Rev. 148. . . PALUSTRIS. 


88 ALAUDIDE, LARKS.—GEN. 25. 


25. Genus CISTOTHORUS Cabanis. 


Short-billed Marsh Wren. Dark brown above, crown and middle of 
back blackish, nearly everywhere conspicuously streaked with white; below 
buffy white, shading into pale brown on sides and behind; wings and tail 
barred with blackish and light brown ; flanks barred with dusky ; throat and~ 
middle of belly whitish: 44; wing and tail about 13; bill not $ long and 
very slender; tarsus and middle toe and claw together about 14. Eastern 
United States, in reedy swamps and marshes, not common. Troglodytes 
brevirostris. Nurr., i, 431; Aup., ii, 138, pl. 124; Bp., 365. srELiaris. 


Family ALAUDIDA:. Larks. 


A rather small group, well defined by the character of the feet, in adaptation to 
terrestrial life. The subcylindrical tarsi are scutellate and blunt behind as in front, 
with a deep groove along the inner side, and a slight one, or none, on the outer 
face. Other characters (shared, however, with some Motacillide) are the very long, 
straight, hind claw, which equals or exceeds its digit in length; the long, pointed 
wings, with the Ist primary spurious or wanting, and the inner secondaries (‘“ terti- 
aries”) lengthened and flowing. The nostrils are usually concealed by dense tufts 
of antrorse feathers. The shape of the bill is not diagnostic, being sometimes 
short, stout and conic, much as in some Fringillide, while in other genera it is 
slenderer, and more like that of insectivorous Passeres. The family is composed, 
nominally, of a hundred species ; with the exception of one genus and two or three 
species or varieties, it is confined to the Old World. Its systematic position is 
open to question; Lilljeborg removes it from Oscines altogether, probably on 
account of the peculiarities of the podotheca; authors generally place it near the 
Fringillide, perhaps from the resemblance of the bill of some species to that of the 
finches ; but it has many relationships with the Motacillidw, and in the arrangement 
of this work I find no better place for it than here, though it has no special affinity 
with the preceding family. Moreover, the fact that it has indifferently nine or ten 
primaries may indicate a natural position between the sets of families in which 
number of primaries is among the diagnostic features. According to shape of bill, 
structure of nostrils, and number of primaries, the family may be divided into two 
subfamilies, the Alaudinw, typified by the celebrated skylark of Europe, and the 


Subfamily CALANDRITIN, 


Represented in America by the single genus Eremophila, of which there are 
nominally ten, really four or five, species. The birds of this genus have the bill com- 
pressed-conoid, shorter than the head, the nostrils densely feathered, and appar- 
ently only nine primaries (though I suspect that a rudimentary 1st primary exists 
in the condition mentioned under Ampelis and Vireo); the point of the wing 
formed by the first three primaries ; the tail of medium length and nearly square ; 
and a peculiar little tuft of lengthened feathers over each ear, like the “horns” of 
certain owls. They frequent open places, are strictly terrestrial in habits, and 
never hop when on the ground, like most Passeres; they are migratory in most 
localities, and gregarious, except when breeding; nest on the ground, and lay 4-5 
speckled eggs ; sing sweetly in the spring time. 


MOTACILLIDZ, WAGTAILS.— GEN. 26. 89 


26. Genus EREMOPHILA Boie. 


Horned Lark. Shore Lark. In spring :—Pinkish-brown, brightest on 
rump, nape and wing coverts, thickly streaked with dusky; below, white, 
breast and sides shaded with the color of the back, chin, throat and super- 
ciliary line pale yellow, or yellowish-white ; a pectoral crescent and curved 
stripe under the eye, black; tail 
black, outer feathers white-edged 
and middle ones like the back. 
Tints extremely variable; young 
birds, and fall and winter specimens 
of the Atlantic States are plain 
grayish-brown, streaked with darker, — 
below soiled whitish, and with the 
black markings of the head and 
breast obscure or wanting, though 
the yellow is usually bright—even 
more so than in spring. Length 7-74, wing 44, tail 23-3, tarsus %, hind 
claw 4-3, very slender and sharp. North America; in the east retires in 
spring beyond the United States, but in the west breeds on the plains much 
further south. Wus., i, 85, pl. 5, f. 4; Nurr., i, 455; Aup., iii, 44, pl. 
PIU ce 5. «kl le lw lt le hl e)6CUALPESTRIS. 

Var. curysoLzma. A rather smaller, brighter colored race, occurring in south- 
western United States and Mexico. It looks quite different at first sight, but is 
not distinguishable as a species by any definite or constant characters. Alauda 
rufa AwD., vii, 353, pl. 497; Bp., 403. The foregoing, with EZ. peregrina, a South 
American species or variety, are the only American Alaudide. 


DSS ae a 
Fic. 32. Horned Lark. 


Family MOTACILLIDZA. Wagtails. 


Bill shorter than the head, very slender, straight, acute, notched at tip. Rictus 
not evidently bristled. Primaries nine, of which the Ist is about as long as the 2d, 
and the first three, four or five, form the point; inner secondaries enlarged, the 
longest one nearly, or quite, equalling the primaries in the closed wing. Tail 
lengthened, generally about equalling the wing. Feet large; tarsus scutellate, 
longer than the middle toe and claw; inner toe cleft to the very base, but basal 
joint of outer toe soldered with the middle one; hind toe usually bearing a long 
and little curved claw. A pretty well defined group of one hundred, chiefly Old 
World, species, which may be termed terrestrial Sylvias, all living mostly on the 
ground, where they run with facility, never hopping like most Oscines. They are 
usually gregarious; are insectivorous and migratory. They have gained their 
name from the characteristic habit of moving the tail with a peculiar see-saw 
motion, as if they were using it to balance themselves upon unsteady footing. 
They may be distinguished from all the foregoing birds, except Alaudidw, by 
having only nine primaries ; and from all the following birds by having long flow- 
ing inner secondaries; and from Alaudide, with which they agree in this respect, 
as well as in usually having a lengthened, straightish hind claw, by having the 
tarsal envelope as in Oscines generally, slender bill and exposed nostrils. Two 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 12 


90 MOTACILLIDH, WAGTAILS.—GEN. 27, 28. 


subfamilies are generally recognized, though the distinctions are scarcely more than 
generic. 
Subfamily MOTACILLINA. True Wagtails. 

Represented in America by a single species; in the Old World by nearly fifty 
species or varieties, chiefly belonging to the genus Motacilla and its subdivisions 
or immediate allies, of which Budytes is one. In Motacilla itself, the hind claw is 
of about the ordinary length and curvature; in Budytes, the hind claw is longer 
and nearly straight, and the tail is about as long as the 
wing, the point of which is formed by only three quills. 


27. Genus BUDYTES Cuvier. 


Yellow Wagtail. Greenish-olive, below yellow ; 
crown and nape ashy, superciliary line white, wings 
and tail blackish, white-edged. Length 6; wing 


Fic. 33. Yellow Wagtail; m p . 
natural size. and tail about 3. Alaska; a well known, widely 


spread and extremely variable Old World species, unknown in America 
until the recent discovery by Dr. Bannister that it is abundant at St. 
Michael’s. Datu and Bann., Trans. Chicago Acad., 1869, 277, pl. 30, 
PQ ee we Re 


Subfamily ANTHINA. Titlarks. 

Consisting of the single genus Anthus, of which, however, there are several sub- 
divisions. In typical Anthus, the wing is longer than the tail, and its point is 
formed by the four outer primaries, the 5th being abruptly shorter; the hind claw _ 
is nearly straight, and nearly or quite equals its digit in length. Here belong our 
species; in certain South American forms even five primaries enter into the tip of 
the wing ; in several European subgenera only three primaries are abruptly longer 
than the succeeding ones. Our Anthus is strictly congeneric with the European 
A. spinoletta, type of the genus: Neocorys only differs in having the feet larger 
and tail shorter. About fifty species (among them six or eight Central and South 
American ones) are ascribed to Anthine, of which half may prove genuine. They 
are terrestrial and more or less gregarious birds, migratory and insectivorous. 


28. Genus ANTHUS Bechstein. 

Brown Lark. Titlark. Wagtail. Pipit. Dark brown with a slight 
olive shade, and most of the feathers with dusky centres, giving a slightly 
streaked appearance ; eyelids, superciliary line and all the 
under parts pale buffy or ochrey brown (very variable in 
shade), the breast and sides of the neck and body thickly 
streaked with dusky ; wings and tail blackish, inner sec- 
ondaries pale-edged, and one or more outer tail feathers 
wholly or partly white; 64-63, wing 34-34, tail 23-3. 
North America, everywhere; an abundant and well 
known bird of fields and plains. In the United States, 
seen chiefly in flocks, in the fall and winter: breeds in 


2 ° 4 . Fig. 34. Brown Lark; 
high latitudes, and in the Rocky Mountains, above the natural size. 


timber line, as far south as Park county, Colorado (Allen) ; lays 4-6 very 
dark colored eggs in a mossy nest on the ground; voice querulous, gait 


SYLVICOLIDE, WARBLERS.— GEN. 29. 91 


tremulous, flight vacillating. Wuus., v, 89, Bs 89; Nurr., i, 450; Avp., 
mi, 40, pl. 140; Bp., 232. . . . af eee. RUDOVICIANUS. 


29. Genus NEOCORYS Sclater. 


Missouri Skylark. Brown, the feathers with paler edges; below and a 
superciliary line, whitish, the breast sharply speckled with dusky; wings 
and tail dusky, inner secondaries pale-edged, outer tail feathers white; 54; 
wing 3, tail 23. Region of the Upper Missouri and Saskatchewan, ex- 
tremely rare; said to resemble closely the European skylark in habits. 
tad. 505 6D.,202. . . . . . . . . . . SPRAGUEI. 


' Family SYLVICOLIDA. American Warblers. 


Primaries, nine; inner secondaries not enlarged, nor hind toe lengthened and 
straightened, as in the two preceding families ; bill without a lobe or tooth near the 
middle of the commissure, as in Pyranga, nor strongly toothed and hooked at end, 
as in Collurio and Vireo, nor greatly flattened with gape reaching to eyes, as in 
Hirundinide, nor strictly conical with angulated commissure, as in Fringillide. 
The family presents such a number of minor modifications of form, that it seems 
impossible to characterize it, except negatively ; in fact, it has never been satis- 
factorily defined. But doubtless the student will be able to assure himself that his 
specimen is a sylvicoline, by its not showing the peculiarities of our other nine- 
primaried Oscines. 

All the sylvicolas are small birds; excepting Icteria, and perhaps a species of 
Seiurus, not one is over six inches long, and they hardly average over five. With 
few exceptions they are beautifully clothed in variegated colors; but the sexes are 
generally unlike, and the changes of plumage, with age and season of the year, are 
usually strongly marked, so that different specimens of the same species may bear 
to each other but little resemblance; this of course renders careful discrimination 
necessary. ‘The usual shape of the bill may be called conoid-elongate (something 
like a slender minié bullet in miniature), but the variations in precise shape are 
endless. The rictus is usually bristled; the bristles sometimes have an extraor- 
dinary development, and are sometimes wanting. The wings are longer than the 
tail, except in Geothlypis, Icteria, and one or two exotic genera; neither the wing 
nor tail ever presents striking forms. The feet have no special peculiarities, though 
they show some slight modifications corresponding to somewhat terrestrial, or more 
strictly arboricole, habits. Some of the warblers have the habits of titmice or 
wrens; others of creepers or nuthatches; the Seiwri closely resemble the tit- 
larks in some respects, and have even been placed in the Motacillide ; while the 
Setophagine simulate the Tyrannide (of a different suborder) so perfectly that 
they used to be classed with the true flycatchers. The warblers grade so perfectly 
towards the tanagers that they have all been made a subfamily of Tanagride 
(where possibly they belong). The affinity of some of them with the Cerebide, 
or honey-creepers of the tropics, is so close that the dividing line has not been 
drawn. The position of Icteria and its two associate exotic genera, Granatellus 
and Teretristis, is open to question; perhaps they come nearer Vireonide. It is 
probable that final critical study will result in a remapping of the whole group; 
meanwhile, the very diversity of forms included in it enables us to mark off sec- 
tions with ease. 


92 SYLVICOLIDZ, WARBLERS.— GEN. 30, 31. 


As at present constituted, the Sylvicolide, comprising upwards of a hundred 
genuine species, may be considered to represent, in America to which they are 
confined, the Sylviidee or typical Old World warblers. I divide them into three 
subfamilies, uniting the Geothlypine of Baird with the true Sylvicoline. Their 
characters, mostly borrowed from Baird’s excellent analysis, will be found in full 
beyond; here they may be shortly contrasted : — 

Sylvicoline.— Wings longer than tail (except in Geothlypis) ; commissure 
slightly curved, with short bristles or none. 

Icteriine. — Wings shorter than tail; commissure much curved, unbristled. 

Setophagine.— Wings longer than tail; commissure slightly curved, with 
bristles reaching beyond the nostrils. 


Subfamily SYLVICOLINA!. Warblers. 


Bill conoid-elongate, shorter than the head, about as high as, or rather higher 
than, wide opposite the nostrils, not hooked, but with a slight notch, or none, at tip ; 
commissure straight or slightly curved ; a few rictal bristles, reaching little if any 
beyond the nostrils, or none. Wings pointed, longer than the narrow, nearly even 
tail (except in Geothlypis). 

This group is specially characteristic of North America; all the genera and the 
great majority of the species occurring within our limits in summer, though most of 
them winter in the West Indies, Mexico and Central America. Dendreca, the 
largest and most beautiful genus, is particularly characteristic of the Eastern 
United States. All are strictly insectivorous, though not such expert flycatchers as 
the Setophagine ; none rank high as songsters, though they have pleasing notes in 
springtime. With us, they are all migratory. 

*,* Genera 30, 31, are creeping warblers, having the hind toe longer than its 
claw, and the front toes more extensively soldered together at base than in any other 
forms. Gen. 36, 37, 38 are ground warblers, with the feet relatively stouter than 
in the rest. Gen. 32, 33, 34 are worm-eating warblers; these have no rictal bristles 
at all. Genus 35 comprehends the wood warblers par excellence. 


30. Genus MNIOTILTA Vieillot. 


Black and White Creeper. (PI. u, figs. 12, 13, 14, 12a, 13a, 14a.) 
Entirely black.and white, in streaks, except on the belly ; tail white-spotted, 
wings white-barred ; 5-54, wing 24-22, tail 24. Eastern North America ; 
a common bird, generally observed scrambling like a nuthatch about the 
trunk and larger branches of forest trees. WILS., 
iii, 22; pl. 19; Nurt., i, 384; AuD., 1, Osea 
114; Bp., 2365 2. ie ss le 


31. Genus PARULA Bonaparte. 


Blue Yellow-backed Warbler. $, in spring: 
blue, back with a golden-brown patch, throat and 
breast yellow with a rich brown or blackish patch, 


Fig. 35. Black and White iy : . 
Creeper; natural size. the former sometimes extending along the sides; 


belly, eyelids, two wing-bars, and several tail-spots, white; lores black ; 
upper mandible black, under flesh colored; ¢ , in spring, with the blue less 


SYLVICOLIDZ, WARBLERS.—GEN. 32, 33, 34. 93 


bright, the back and throat patches not so well defined; young, with the 
blue glossed with greenish, and these patches obscure or wanting; but 
always recognizable by the other marks and very small size; 43-42; wing 
24; tail 13. Eastern North America; an elegant, diminutive species, 
abundant in high open woods, where it is generally observed fluttering 
among the smallest twigs and terminal foliage. WZULS., iv, 17, pl. 28, f. 3; 
Norr., i, 397; Aup., ii, 57, pl. 91; Bp., 238. wai. - AMERICANA. 


32. Genus PROTONOTARIA Baird. 


Prothonotary Warbler. Golden-yellow, paler on the belly, changing to 
olivaceous on the back, thence to bluish-ashy on the rump, 

O wings and tail; most of the tail feathers largely white on the 

inner webs; no other special markings; bill entirely black, 

very large, at least $ long; 53, wing 23-3, tail 24. South 

) ae Atlantic and Gulf States; straying, however, to Ohio, 
tary Warbler. Missouri and even Maine; swamps and thickets; not com- 
Sew ies... ii, (2, pl. 24.7.3; Nutr., i, 410; Aup., iii, 89, 106; Bo., 
i TGS GGG fs 5 8. Sw ee OOITRMA. 


33. Genus HELMITHERUS Rafinesque. 


Worm-eating Warbler. Olive, below buffy, paler or whitish on the belly ; 
head buff, with four sharp black stripes, two-along sides of crown from bill 
to nape, one along each side of head through 
the eye; wings and tail olivaceous, unmarked : 
bill and feet pale; bill acute, unbristled, un- 
notched, at least 4 long, stout at base; tail 
rounded; 53, wing 22, tail 2. The sexes are 
not particularly dissimilar. Eastern United 
States, rather southerly, but north to Maine; = F!6. 37. Worm-eating Warbler. 
woods, shrubbery and swamps; rather common. WIULS., iii, 74, pl. 24, f. 
4; Norr., i, 409; Aup., ii, 86, pl. 105; Bp., 252. . . . VERMIVORUS. 

Swainson’s Warbler. Somewhat similar; colors browner above, includ- 
ing the head, and more buffy below; a whitish superciliary line ; no decided 
markings anywhere; bill still longer, shaped something like a meadow- 
lark’s ; tail emarginate; nearly 6 long. A rare and curious species, confined 
to the South Atlantic States; said to have occurred in Massachusetts, but 
this is a mistake. Avv., ii, 83, pl. 104; Bp., 252. . . . SWAINSONII. 


34. Genus HELMINTHOPHAGA Cabanis. 
* .* The bill slender and exceedingly acute, unnotched, unbristled. The follow- 
ing analysis will determine the species in adult plumage — not otherwise : — 


Tail feathers white-blotched — bluish, crown yellow, throat black, . ..... .. . . . . chrysoptera. 
— greenish, crown and all under parts yellow, . ......... . pinus. 

— greenish, crown (partly) and throat black,. . . . . . . . . . bachmanii. 

— upper tail coverts chestnut, crown patch ies CEU, Miteun Cel a aim oiris) Loita eam LIL CLe. 

Tail feathers “all unmarked — upper tail coverts—yellow; crown patch chestnut, . . .. . . . virginica. 
—not yellow; crown patch—chestnut, . . . . ruficapilla. 

—orange brown, .. . celata. 


—wanting, ... . peregrina. 


94 SYLVICOLIDH, WARBLERS.—GEN. 34. 


Blue-winged Yellow Warbler. Crown and entire under parts rich yellow ; 
upper parts yellow-olive, becoming slaty-blue on the wings and tail, former 
with two white or yellowish bars, latter with several large white blotches ; 
bill and stripe through eye black; 5, wing 24, tail 24. 9 and young not 
very dissimilar. Eastern United States; common. The resemblance, in 
color, between this species and the prothonotary warbler, is striking. Wuxs., 
ii, 109, pl. 15; Nurr., i, 410; Awp., ii, 98, pl. 111; Bp.) 250 eee 

Blue Golden-winged Warbler. 4 , in spring : —slaty-blue, paler or whitish 
below, where frequently tinged with yellowish; crown and two wing-bars 
rich yellow; broad stripe on side of head through 
eye, and large patch on throat, black, both these 
bordered with white; several tail feathers white- 
blotched; bill black. The back and wings are fre- 
quently glossed with yellowish-olive, especially in 
immature specimens, in which also the peculiar mark- 
Fic. 38. Blue Golden-wingea INS of the head and throat may be obscure. Size of 

sai pinus. Eastern United States; rather common, in 
woodland, like the preceding. Whuts., ii, 113, pl. 15, f. 5; Nurr., i, 411; 
Anpent ol, “pl: £07; Boy Zan =~ see . . . CHBYSOPTERA, 

Bachman’s Warbler. Greenish-olive, bined ‘with ashy on hind head ; 
under parts, forehead, chin and lesser wing coverts, yellow; throat and 
band across crown, black; outer tail feathers white-blotched. Small; 43; 
wing 24, tail 2. An extremely rare species, confined to the South Atlantic 
States. Aup., ii, 93, pl. 108; Bp., 255. Sea . » BACHMANII. 

Lucy’s Warbler. Ashy-gray, below white, nomnelingas faintly buffy-tinted 
on the breast; upper tail coverts and crown patch chestnut, the latter often 
concealed, and wanting in the young; outer tail feathers obscurely white- 
blotched. Very small; 43-44, extent 74, wing 23-24, tail 13-2, bill about 
4! A rare and curious species, lately discovered in Arizona; very unlike 
any other, and somewhat resembling a Polioptila. Colorado Valley. 
Coorrr, Proc. Cala. Acad. 1861, 120, and B. Cal. 84; Cougs, Proc. 
Acad. Philada. 1866, 35; Barep, Review, 178. . . . «..«. © =O 

Virginia’s Warbler. Plumbeous, washed with greenish-olive, especially 
in 2 and autumnal specimens; below white, shaded on sides; throat with a 
yellow patch; upper and under tail coverts yellow (entirely yellow below - 
when adult?) ; crown patch chestnut; a white ring around eye; 5; wing 
24, tail 24. Southern Rocky Mountain region. (Colorado, abundant, 
Ripeway; Arizona, rare, Cougs.) Very near the next species! Barrp, 
B. N. A. 1860, p. xi, pl. 79, f. 1, and Rev., 177; Coor., 85. . VIRGINIA. 

Nashville Warbler. Olive-green, brighter on rump, changing to pure 
ash on head: below bright yellow, paler on belly, olive-shaded on sides ; 
crown with a more or less concealed chestnut patch; lores and ring round 
eye pale; no superciliary stripe; 9 and autumnal specimens have the head 
glossed with olive, and the crown patch may be wanting. 43-42; wing 
24-23; tail 13-2. Eastern North America, common; also, California 


SYLVICOLIDZ, WARBLERS.— GEN. 35. 95 


(Xantus, GRUBER). WIIS., iii, 120, pl. 27, f. 3, and vi, 15; Nurr., i, 
412; Aup., ii, 103, pl..113; Bp., 256; Coor., 82. . . . RUFICAPILLA. 

Orange-crowned Warbler. Olive-green, nearly uniform, rather brightest 
on rump, never ashy on head: below, greenish-yellow, washed with olive on 
the sides; crown with more or less concealed orange-brown patch (sometimes 
wanting) ; eye-ring and obscure superciliary line yellowish. Size of the 
last, and often difficult to distinguish in immature plumage; but a general 
oliveness and yellowness, compared with the ashy of some parts of ruficapilla, 
and the different color of the crown-patch in the two species, will usually 
be diagnostic. North America; common in the West, rare or irregular in 
the Eastern States. Bonap., Am. Orn., i, 45, pl. 5, f. 2; Nurt., i, 413; 
ee LOO, pl. 212;5 Bp.,257; Coor.,83. . . . JS SOBLATA, 

Tennessee Warbler. Ge -precn. brighter behind but never quite yellow 
on the tail coverts, more or less ashy Bards and on head ; no crown patch ; 
below, white, often glossed with yellowish but never quite yellow; a ring 
round eye, and superciliary line, whitish; frequently an obscure whitish 
spot on outer tail feathers; lores dusky; in the 9 and young the olivaceous 
glosses the whole upper parts. 44-43, wing about 23, tail 2 or less; this 
comparative length of wing and tail, with other characters, probably always 
distinguishes the species from the foregoing. Eastern North America; rare 
in New England. W1:s., iii, 83, pl. 25, f. 2; Nurr.,i, 412; Avup., ii, 91, 
TAGs cos 5 = = +s » « « » PEREGRINA. 


35. Genus DENDRG@CA Gray. 


*.* The coloration of the rectrices is a good clue to this genus; for all the 
species, excepting estiva and its exotic conspecies or varieties, have the tail feathers 
at all ages blotched with white—a feature only shown, among North American 
allies, in gen. 30, 31, 32 and part of 34, 40. . About thirty-five species pass current, 
but only twenty-seven of them are well established ; they all occur within our limits 
excepting these : — pityophila (Cuba), adelaide (Porto Rico), pharetra (Jamaica), 
olivacea (Mexico), and petechia with its several tropical forms, all like estiva, and 
of which eoa (Jamaica) and uwreola (Galapagos) seem most likely to prove 
genuine. Of the twenty-five species ascribed to North America, one, olivacea, has 
been admitted upon insufficient evidence; of two others, ‘‘montana” and ‘“car- 
bonata,” nothing is now known; leaving twenty-two species to be here treated. 
Kirtlandii is exceedingly rare; only two or three specimens have ever been dis- 
covered. Tigrina has been lately removed from the genus, as type of a new one 
(Perissoglossa), on account of a peculiar structure of the tongue, which resembles 
that of certain Cerebide ; but, as Sundevall remarks, we have yet to see whether 
other warblers do not possess the same character. This is an inviting problem; the 
student may render good service to ornithology, and reflect credit on himself, 
by examining the tongues of some additional (see Barrp, Rev., 164) species 
under a moderate magnifying power, and publishing his results. Baird’s excellent 
analysis of the North American species known in 1858 was supplemented in 1865 
by a more complete review of the whole genus, and in 1869 a monographic essay 
was given by Sundevall (Ofvers. Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Forh., 615). The follow- 
ing artificial analysis will facilitate the determination of our twenty-two established 


96 SYLVICOLIDH, WARBLERS. — GEN. 35. 


species ; I believe it to be an infallible key to the perfect male plumages, and that it 
will probably hold good for spring specimens of both sexes of many species; but 
it will fail for nearly all autumnal and most female specimens of (b). It is difficult 
if not impossible to meet the varied requirements of these by rigid analysis; and 
recourse must be had to the detailed descriptions of the species arranged in what 
seems to be their natural sequence. The supplementary table of certain peculiar- 
ities may, however, prove of much assistance, though it is not a complete analysis. 


ANALYSIS OF PERFECT SPRING MALES. 


Tail feathers edged with yellow, .. . Pe ao a ten, 
Tail feathers blotched with white; a white Saat at the hare of ebnerter! 

—no white spot at base of primaries. (a) 

(a) Wing-bars not white. Below, white, sides chestnut-streaked, crown yellow, .. . . . pennsylvanica. 

— yellow; sides reddish-streaked, crown reddish, + + + « palmarun, 

— black-streaked; above, ashy,. ..-. .. . . kirtlandii. 


— olive, reddish-streaked, . discolor. 
(a) Wing-bars white (sometimes fused into one large white patch). (b) 


o + um « « 6COprelescens. 


(b) Crown blue, like the back; below, white, sides and breast streaked, . ......... « coerulea. 
— chestnut, like the throat; below, and sides of neck, buffy tinged, . ..... . . . castanea. 

— clear ash; rump and under parts yellow, breast and sides black-streaked, » maculosa. 

— blackish, with median line orange-brown, like the auriculars; rump yellow, .. . . . tigrina. 

— perfectly black; throat black; a small yellow loral spot, . . . . . . . +. « « «+ « Migrescens. 

—not black; no yellow; feet flesh-color,. ....... +. . striata. 

—with yellow spot; throat flame-color; rump not yellow, ..... .. .. . + blackburnia. 
—white; rump and sides of breast yellow, ... ... . . coronata. 

— yellow; rump and sides of breast yellow, . . . .. . «. » audubonii. 

(b) Crown otherwise; throat black; back ashy, streaked, rump ash, crown yellow, . . . . . occidentalis. 
— blackish, rump black, crown blackish, . . . . . . chrysopareia. 

— olive; crowniike back, . . +s « « « « « «# « «nlellwaernees 

—notlike back, . ...... +... »« townsendit. 

— yellow; back olive; no black orashy onhead, ... . a cin iv pai 

—ashy-blue; cheeks the same; eyelids vellows se 8 « OMGCIEE 


— black; eyelids white,. . . . . . dominica. 


Diagnostic marks of certain Warblers in any plumage. 


A white spot at base of primaries — cerulescens. 

A yellow spot in front of the eye and nowhere else — nigrescens. 

Wings and tail dusky, edged with yellow — estiva. 

Wing-bars and belly yellow — discolor. 

Wing-bars yellow, and belly pure white — pennsylvanica. 

Wing-bars white, tail-spots oblique, at end of two outer feathers only — pinus. 

Wing-bars brownish, tail-spots square, at end of two outer feathers only — pal- 
marum. 

Wing-bars not evident (?), whole under parts yellow, back with no greenish — 
kirtlandit. 

Tail-spots at end of nearly all the feathers, and no definite yellow anywhere — 
cerulea. 

Tail-spots at middle of nearly all the feathers, rump and belly yellow — maculosa. 

Rump, sides of breast, and crown more or less yellow; throat white —coronata. 

Rump, sides of breast, crown and throat, more or less yellow — audubonii. 

Throat definitely yellow, belly white, back with no greenish —dominica or gracie. 

Throat yellow or orange, crown with at least a trace of a central yellow or 
orange spot, and outer tail feather white-edged externally — blackburnice. 

Throat, breast and sides black or with black traces, sides of head with diffuse 
yellow, outer tail feather white-edged externs n allies. 

Bill ordinary ; and with none of the foregoing special marks — striata or castanea. 

Bill extremely acute, perceptibly curved: rump (generally) yellow — tigrina. 


SYLVICOLID/, WARBLERS.—GEN. 35. 97 


Blue-eyed Yellow Warbler. Golden Warbler. Summer Yellowbird. 
Golden-yellow; back olive-yellow, frequently with obsolete brownish 
streaks ; breast and sides streaked with orange-brown ; wings and tail dusky, 
yellow-edged ; bill dark horn blue; @ and young paler, less or not streaked 
below. North America, everywhere a familiar and abundant bird. Sylvia 
citrinella Wi1s., ii, 111, pl. 15, f. 5; S. childrent Aup., Orn. Biog. i, 180, 
pl. 35; S. rathbonia Aup., ii, 53, pl. 89; 50, pl. 88; Nurr., i, 364, 370; 
Pei oS sk kw ll ZESTIVA. 


Fic. 39. Black-throated Green Warbler. 


Black-throated Green Warbler. %, in spring: back and crown clear 
yellow-olive, forehead, superciliary line and whole sides of head rich yellow 
(in very high plumage, middle of back with dusky marks, and dusky or 
dark olive lines through eyes and auriculars, and even bordering the crown) ; 
chin, throat and breast jet black, prolonged behind as streaks on the sides; 
other under parts white, usually yellow-tinged; wings and tail dusky, 
former with two white bars and much whitish edging, latter with outer 
feathers nearly all white; bill and feet blackish; g in the fall and ¢ in 
spring, similar, but the black restricted, interrupted or veiled with yellow ; 
young similar to the 9, but black still more restricted or wanting alto- 
gether, except a few streaks along sides. Small: about 5; wing 23. 
(Compare Blue Mountain warbler, beyond.) Eastern United States, abund- 
ant in forests; breeds in New England in pine woods. W5zs., ii, 127, pl. 
Bigae os Norr.; i, 3/6; Aun., ii, 42, pl. 84; Bp., 267. . . . VIRENS. 

Western Warbler. Somewhat similar to the last; crown and back not 
continuously olive; back olivaceous-ash, with blackish streaks; crown and 
sides of head clear yellow, former with the feathers black-tipped or dusky- 
clouded; no black stripe through eye; chin, throat and fore-breast pure 
black, ending behind with a sharp convex outline; sides faintly or not 
streaked with black; belly, wings and tail as in virens. Rocky Mountains 
to the Pacific, U.S. The seasonal and sexual changes are not well made 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 13 


98 SYLVICOLIDZ, WARBLERS.—GEN. 35. 


out, but are doubtless Sas with those of virens. Aup., ii, 60, pl. 93; 
Bp; 2685 (5) does oe ew ie ee thal) ote OCCT Aaa 
Townsend's Warian Somewhat similar to virens; upper parts olive- 
green, much black-streaked, crown mostly black with olive edgings of the 
feathers, chin and throat not perfectly black? Perfect plumage probably 
not known, and changes not well understood. Rocky Mountains to the 
Pacific ; said to have once occurred near Philadelphia. Nurr., 2d ed., i, 
446; Aup., 59, 92; Bp., 269, and Rev., 185; Coor., 91. . TOWNSENDII. 
Golden - cheeked Warbler. Prevailing color of the upper parts black, 
pure on the rump, elsewhere mixed with olive-green; sides of the head 
yellow, with narrow black stripe through the eye; below, with the wings 
and tail, as in virens; size of this species. Guatemala (Salvin) to Pexas 
(San Antonio, Heermann). A species I have never seen; the description is 
abridged from Barrp, Rev., 183, 267, who took it from the type of the 
‘ species. Sci. and Satv., Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1860, 298, and Ibis, 
1860, 273. *,* This and the two preceding species require further investi- 
gation to place their tones to each other and to vivens upon firm 
footing. . Pee 
Biak-iroakal reese Warbler. é, in spring: back bluish-ash, with 
black streaks; head and neck all round pure black, with a white stripe over 
and behind eye, another, broader and longer, from the corner of the bill 
on each side of the chin and throat, and a little yellow spot just before and 
above the eye (no other yellow anywhere) ; below 
, from the throat white, the sides with numerous black 
& streaks; wings and tail blackish, former with two 
white bars and much whitish edging, latter with outer 
feathers almost entirely white; bill and feet black. 
= Young, and 9, differ chiefly in having the black of 

Fig. 40. Black-throated Gray the head and throat clouded with ashy, and the black 
ra streaks of the back obsolete: the curious yellow loral 

spot seems to be persistent and diagnostic of the species. Size of virens, 
and much the same pattern of coloration, bluish-ash replacing the olive ; 
stands between virens and ceerulescens; the western analogue of the latter. 
Rocky Mountains to the Pacific. Nurr., i, 2d ed. 471; Aup., ii, 62, pl. 
94; Boi, 2 gee: 20s lie ene eipadeatie . «os NIGRESCENE: 
Black-throated Blue Warbler. & in spring: segues uniform slaty-blue, 
the perfect continuity of which is only interrupted, in very high plumages, 
by a few black dorsal streaks ; below, pure white; the sides of the head to 
above the eyes, the chin, throat, and whole sides of the body continuously 
jet-black ; wing-bars wanting (the coverts being black, edged with blue), 
but a large white spot at base of primaries; quill feathers blackish, out- 
wardly edged with bluish, the inner ones mostly white on their inner webs ; 
tail with the ordinary white blotches, the central feathers edged with 
bluish ; bill black; feet dark. Young @, similar, but the blue glossed with ~ 
olivaceous, and the black interrupted and restricted. 9 entirely different : 


SYLVICOLIDE, WARBLERS.—GEN. 35. 99 


dull olive-greenish, with faint bluish shade, below pale soiled yellowish ; but 
recognizable by the white spot at base of primaries, which, though it may 
be reduced to a mere speck, is always evident, at least on pushing aside the 
primary coverts ; no other wing markings; tail-blotches small or obscure ; 
feet rather pale. Size of virens. Eastern United States, abundant, in 
woodland. S. pusilla, Wits., v, 100, pl. 43, f. 4; S. sphagnosa, Noutr., 
i, 406; Aup., Orn. Biog. ii, 279, are 9 or young. SS. canadensis, WILS., 
tee, pl. 15, f. 7; Norr., 1, 398; Aup., ii, 63, 95; Bp., 271. S. ceru- 
Seeeew iGo. 2 Cw | CRULESCENS. 

Oxss. The only other warbler with a white spot at base of primaries is the D. 
olivacea of Mexico, and ascribed also to Texas; it is olivaceous, the head, neck 
and breast orange-brown, with a black bar through the eye. Cass., Ill. 283, pl. 48 ; 
Bp., Rey. 205. 

Cerulean Warbler. 2 in spring: azure blue, with black streaks ; below, 
pure white, breast and sides with blue or blue-black streaks; two white 
wing-bars ; tail-blotches small, but occupying every feather, except, perhaps, 
the central pair; bill black, fect dark. 9 and young with the blue impure, 
strongly glossed with greenish, and the white similarly soiled with yellow- 
ish; a yellowish eye-ring and superciliary line. Eastern United States, not 
common in most places; north to Connecticut Valley; “Nova Scotia.” A 
small and very beautiful species; 4-44. Sylvia rara, Wits., iii, 119, pl. 
ee, 2. 2; Norr., i, 393. 8S. azurea, Noutr., i, 407; S. cerulea, WILS., ii, 
141, pl. 17, f. 5; Avup., ii, 45, pl. 86; Bp., 280. Se aks - OPRULEAS 

Yellow-rumped Warbler. Yellow-crowned Warbler. Myrtle Bird. ¢$, 
in spring: slaty-blue, streaked with black; below, white, breast and sides 
mostly black, belly, and especially the throat, pure white, immaculate ; 
rump, central crown patch, and sides of breast sharply yellow, there being 
thus four definite yellow places; sides of head black; eyelids and super- 
ciliary line white ; ordinary white wing-bars and tail-blotches; bill and feet 
black; g¢ in winter, and @ in summer, similar, 
but slate color less pure, or quite brownish ; 7/0w7g que 
birds are quite brown above, with a few obscure gg 
streaks in the whitish of the under parts. It is im- 
possible to specify the endless intermediate styles ; 
but I never saw a specimen without the yellow 
rump, and at least a trace of the other yellow 
marks ; these points therefore are diagnostic. The 
only other obscure-looking brownish warblers with 
yellow rump are maculosa and tigrina, when young. One of the larger 
species; 54-5%; wing 3, tail 25. North America, but chiefly eastern; 
Alaska (Dall) ; Washington Territory (Suckley) ; California (Cooper, 89). 
United States rarely in summer, but during the migrations the most abun- 
dant of all the warblers; winters as far north at least as Washington, 
D.C. ; occurs, however, in Mexico and Central America; seen everywhere, 
but is particularly numerous in shrubbery, along hedge-rows, in flocks, 


Fic, 41. Yellow-rumped Warbler. 


100 SYLVICOLIDZ, WARBLERS.—GEN. 39. 


associating with troops of sparrows. Wus., ii, 138, pl. 17, f. 4; pl. 45, 
f. 3; Nurr., i, 361;.Aup., ii, 23, pl.76; Bp., 272; Rey., 187. corona 
Audubon’s Warbler. With a close general resemblance to the last, but 
throat yellow, not white; eyelids white, but no white superciliary line; 
cheeks not definitely black ; wing-bars generally fused into one large white 
patch, and tail-blotches larger; otherwise like coronata, of which it is the 
western representative ; and with which its changes of plumage are entirely 
correspondent. North America, from Rocky Mountains to Pacific; very 
abundant. Aup., ii, 26, pl..77; Bp., 273; Coop., 88. ». |.) AUDUBONm 
Blackburnian Warbler. Hemlock Warbler. @g in spring: back black, 
more or less interrupted with yellowish; crown black, with a central 
orange spot; a broad black stripe through eye, enclosing the orange 
under eyelid; rest of head, with whole throat, most brilliant orange, or 
flame color; other under parts whitish, more or less tinged with yellow, and 
sides streaked with black; wing-bars fused into a large white patch ; tail- 
blotches occupying nearly all the outer feathers; bill and feet dark. 9 and 
young ¢: upper parts and crown olive and black, streaked (much like 
adult ¢ and young striata, but is smaller, with more black, and usually a 
yellow trace on the crown) ; superciliary line and throat clear yellow (pale 
for this species, but as rich as is usual for adults of the various yellow- 
throated species), fading insensibly on the breast ; lower eyelid yellow, con- 
fined in the dusky ear-patch; sides streaked much as in the adult; wing- 
patch resolved into two bars; tail-blotches nearly as extensive as in the 
adult, the outer feathers showing white on the outer webs at base (this is a 
strong feature). Eastern United States, abundant in woodland ; the loveli- 
est of the warblers; none can compare with the exquisite hue of the throat. 
S. parus, Wiis., v, 114, pl. 44, f. 3; Nurr., i, 392; Avup., ii, 40, pl. 83 
(young). Wu13s., iii, 64, pl. 23, f. 3; Nurr., i, 379; Aup., ii, 48, pl. 87% 
Bp. i204 duo god, teBilla ARL Tvs oer ad en <td te «oR 
Black-poll Warbler. (PuatE ui, figs. 15, 16, 15a, 16a.) ¢ in spring: 
upper parts thickly streaked with black and oliva- 
ceous-ash; whole crown pure black; head below 
the level of the eyes, and whole under parts, white, 
the sides thickly marked with black streaks crowd- 
ing forward on the sides of the neck to form two 
stripes that converge to meet at base of the bill, 
cutting off the white of the cheeks from that of 
Fig. 42, Black-poll Warbler. the throat; wing-bars and _ tail-blotches ordinary ; 
inner secondaries white-edged; primaries usually edged externally with 
olive; feet and under mandible flesh color, or pale yellowish ; upper mandi- 
ble black. 9 in spring: upper parts, including the crown, greenish-olive, 
both thickly and rather sharply black-streaked ; white of under parts soiled 
anteriorly with very pale olivaceous-yellow, the streaks smaller and not so 
crowded as in the ¢, but still plain enough. Young: closely resembling the 
adult ?, but a brighter and more greenish olive above, with fewer streaks, 


i la ee 


SYLVICOLIDZ, WARBLERS.—GEN. 35. 101 


often obsolete on the crown; below more or less completely tinged with 
pale greenish-yellow, the streaks very obscure and sometimes altogether 
wanting; under tail coverts usually pure white; a yellowish superciliary 
line ; wing-bars tinged with the same color. When the streaks on the sides 
are obsolete, the species bears an extraordinary resemblance to young 
castanea, which see. One of the larger species; 53-53, wing 23-3, tail 
2-24. Eastern North America, very abundant; a late migrant; when the 
black-polls appear in force, the collecting season is about over! WIzLs., iv, 
ee se, i. 5; vi, 101; pl. 54, f.3; Nurr., i, 383; Avup., ii, 28, pl. 
errno cs. wl Cw >) «6STRIATA. 
Bay-breasted Warbler. Autumnal Warbler. ¢& in spring: back thickly 
streaked with black and grayish-olive; forehead and sides of head black 
enclosing a large deep chestnut patch; a duller chestnut (exactly like a blue- 
bird’s breast) occupies the whole chin and throat and thence extends, more 
or less interrupted, along the entire sides of the body; rest of under parts 
ochrey er buffy whitish; a similar buffy area behind the ears; wing-bars and 
tail-spots ordinary; bill and feet blackish. The ¢ in spring is more oliva- 
ceous than the male, with the markings less pronounced; but always shows 
evident chestnut coloration; and probably traces of it persist in all adult 
birds in the fall. The young, however, so closely resemble young sériata, 
that it is sometimes impossible to distinguish them with certainty. The 
upper parts, in fact, are of precisely the same greenish-olive, with black 
streaks; but there is generally a difference below—castanea being there 
tinged with buffy or ochrey, instead of the clearer pale yellowish of striata ; 
this shade is particularly observable on the belly, flanks and under tail 
coverts, just where striata is whitest ; and moreover, castanea is usually not 
_ streaked on the sides at all. Mature spring birds vary interminably in the 
extent and intensity of the chestnut. Size of striata. Eastern United 
States, abundant. Sylvia autumnalis. Wi1s., iii, 65, pl. 23; Nurt., i, 
390; Aup., Orn. Biog., i, 447, pl. 83 (young). Wiuts., ii, 97, pl. 14, f. 
Seeeeeein oes; AUD., ii, pl. 80; Bp., 276. . . . .,4.!° CASTANEA. 
Chestnut-sided Warbler. 3 in spring: back streaked with black and 
pale yellow (sometimes ashy or whitish) ; whole crown pure yellow immedi- 
ately bordered with white, then enclosed with 
black; sides of head and neck and whole under 
parts pure white, former with an irregular black 
crescent before the eye, one horn extending back- 
ward over the eye to border the yellow crown and : 
be dissipated on the sides of the nape, the other 
reaching downward and backward to connect with 
a chain of pure chestnut streaks that run the whole Fie. 48. Chestnut-sided Warbler. 
length of the body, the under eyelid and auriculars being left white; wing- 
bands generally fused into one large patch, and, like the edging of the 
inner secondaries, much tinged with yellow; tail-spots white, as usual; 
bill blackish, feet brown. 9 in spring, quite similar; colors less pure ; 


102 SYLVICOLIDEH, WARBLERS. —GEN. 35. 


black loral crescent obscure or wanting ; chestnut streaks thinner. Young: 
above, including the crown, clear yellowish-green, perfectly uniform, or 
back with slight dusky touches; no distinct head-markings ; below, entirely 
white from bill to tail, unmarked, or else showing a trace of chestnut 
streaks on the sides; wing-bands clear yellow as in the adult; this is a 
diagnostic feature, shared by no other species, taken in connection with the 
continuously white under parts; bill light colored below. 5-54, wing 24, 
tail 2. Eastern United States; abundant in woodland. Wrs., i, 99, pl. 
14. f. 5; Nurt., 1, 380; Aup., ii, 35, pl. 81; Bp., 279. PENNSYLVANICA. 

Black and Yellow Warbler. Magnolia Warbler. in spring: back 
black, the feathers more or less skirted with olive; rump yellow; crown 
clear ash, bordered by black in front to the eyes, 
behind the eyes by a white stripe ; forehead and sides 
of head black, continuous with that of the back, 
enclosing the white under eyelid ; entire under parts 
(except white under tail coverts) rich yellow, thickly 
streaked across the breast and along the sides with 
black, the pectoral streaks crowded and cutting off 
the definitely bounded immaculate yellow throat 
from the yellow of the other under parts; wing-bars white, generally fused 
into one patch ; tail spots small, rectangular, at the middle of the tail and on 
all the feathers excepting the central pair; bill black, feet brown. 9, in 
spring, quite similar; black of back reduced to spots in the grayish-olive ; 
ash of head washed with olive; other head-markings obscure, black streaks 
below smaller and fewer. Young, quite different ; upper parts ashy-olive, 
still grayer on the head; no head-markings whatever, and streaks below 
wanting, or confined to a few small ones along the sides; but always 
known by the yellow rump in connection with extensively or completely 
yellow under parts (except white under tail coverts) and small tail spots 
near the middle of all the feathers except the central. Small; 5 or less, 
wing 24, tail 2. Eastern United States; a dainty little species, abundant 
in woodland. S. magnolia Wis., iii, 63, pl. 23. 8. maculosa, Nurr., 
i, 870; Avup., ii, 65, pl. 96; Bow, 284. 2° 9° 5) ee 2. 

Cape May Warbler. fg in spring: back yellowish-olive, with dark’ 
spots; crown blackish, more or less interrupted with brownish; ear-patch 
orange-brown; chin, throat, and posterior portion of a yellowish superciliary 
line tinged with the same; a black loral line; rwmp and under parts rich 
yellow, paler on belly and crissum, the breast and sides streaked with black ; 
wing-bars fused into a large whitish patch; tail-blotches large, on three 
pairs of rectrices; bill and feet black. @ in spring is somewhat similar, 
but lacks the distinctive head-markings ; the under parts are paler and less 
streaked; the tail-spots small or obscure; the white on the wing less. 
Young: an insignificant-looking bird, resembling an overgrown ruby- 
crowned kinglet, without its crest ; obscure greenish-olive above, rump olive- 
yellow, under parts yellowish white; breast and sides with the streaks 


Fig. 44. Black and Yellow 
Warbler. 


SYLVICOLIDEH, WARBLERS.—GEN. 35. 103 


obseure or obsolete; little or no white on wings, which are edged with 
yellowish; tail-spots very small. 5-54, wing 22, tail 24. Eastern North 
America to Hudson’s Bay; West Indies (where it also breeds). A species 
not very common with us, remarkable for the very acute and somewhat 
deecurved bill, and the anatomical peculiarities of the tongue. S. maritima 
Wus. vi, 99, pl. 54, f. 3; Nurt., i, 371; Aup., 44, pl. 85; D. tégrina 
Bp., 280; Perissoglossa tigrina Bp., Rev. 181... . 24 PIGRINA. 
Prairie Warbler. Yellow-olive: back with a patch of brick-red spots ; 
forehead, superciliary line, two wing-bars and entire under parts, rich 
yellow; a V-shaped black mark on side of head, its upper arm running 
through eye, its lower arm connecting with a series of black streaks along 
the whole sides of the neck and body; tail-blotches very large, occupying 
most of the inner web of the outer feathers. The sexes are almost exactly 
alike, and the young only differ in not being so bright, and in having the 
dorsal patch and head-markings obscure. Small; 43-5; wing 24; tail 2. 
Eastern United States, to Massachusetts; an abundant little bird of the 
Middle and Southern States, in sparse low woodland, cedar thickets and old 
fields grown up to scrub-pines; remarkable for its quaint and curious song ; 
an expert flycatcher, constantly darting into the air in pursuit of winged 
insects, like the redstart and the species of Myiodioctes. S. minuta Wits., 
iii, 87, pl. 25, f.4. S. discolor Nurt., i, 394 (“294” by error of paging) ; 
ee ts bp. 290. . . . . . . . . DISCOLOR. 
Graces Warbler. ¢& in spring: bluish-ash, Bae saith black streaks, 
crown with still more black streaks, so crowded anteriorly and on the sides 
as to become continuous ; chin, throat and breast rich yellow, ending abruptly 
agaiust the white of the other under parts; sides of neck and body with 
numerous black streaks; a broad yellow superciliary line, changing to 
white behind the eye; no white patch below auriculars ; lower eyelid yellow ; 
a black line from bill to eye, with which the streaks of the side of the neck 
connect; two white wing-bars, the anterior one much the stronger; tail 
blotches large, the outer one occupying nearly all the feather; bill and feet 
black. 9 not particularly different. Young: dull brownish (like young 
coronata) with few or no black streaks on back, crown or along sides ; throat, 
eyelid and superciliary line rich yellow, as in the adult; other under parts 
soiled whitish. 5-54, wing 23, tail 24, bill under 4. New Mexico, Arizona 
and southward; abundant, and breeding, at Fort Whipple (Cowes). An 
interesting lately discovered species, closely resembling the next. Cours, 
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philada., 1866, p. 67. Barrp, Rev. 210; Coorrr, 
p-— (appendix). . . - .« GRACIA. 
Yellow-throated Wamiiae. Hitgh ike ne last species, with which its 
changes of plumage are entirely correspondent; no yellow in the black 
under the eye; a white patch separating the black of the cheeks from the 
bluish ash of the neck; superciliary line usually yellow from bill to eye, 
thence white to nape, sometimes entirely white; bill very long (at least 4), 
extremely compressed, almost a little decurved. South Atlantic and Gulf 


104 SYLVICOLIDE, WARBLERS. —GEN. 35. 


States, rather common; north to Maryland and Ohio, but rare ; West Indies 
(where it breeds), Mexico and Central America. SS. flavicollis W1t8S., ii, 
64, pl. 12, f. 6; S. pensilis Nutr., i, 374; Aup., ii, 32, 79; D. super- 
ciliosa Bp., 289; D. dominica, Bp:, Rev. 209. . «+. . « DOMINICA, 

Kirtland’s Warbler. “ Above slate-blue, the feathers of the crown with 
a narrow, those of the back with a broader, streak of black; a narrow 
frontlet involving the lores, the anterior end of the eye and space beneath 
it, black; the rest of the eyelids white; under parts clear yellow, almost 
white on the under tail coverts, the breast with small spots and the sides 
with short streaks of black; greater and middle wing coverts, the quills and 
tail feathers, edged with dull whitish; two outer tail feathers with a dull 
white spot on the inner web; 54; wing 2*, tail 23” (Baird). Very rare; 
only two or three specimens known, from Ohio and the Bahamas. A species 
I have never seen; but I suspect that its relationships are with dominica and 
gracie, and that they may prove still closer with the Portorican species 
of the same group (adeluide). Barrp, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y. v, 
1852, 217, pl. 6; Cass., Ill. i, 278, pl. 47; Bp., Rev. 206. . KIRTLANDII. 

Yellow [ed-poll Warbler. Palm Warbler. In spring: brownish-olive, 
rump and upper tail coverts brighter yellowish-olive, back obsoletely - 
streaked with dusky, crown chestnut; superciliary line and entire under 
parts rich yellow, breast and sides with reddish-brown streaks, somewhat as 
in the summer warbler; a dusky loral line running through eye; no white 
wing-bars, the wing coverts and inner quills being edged with yellowish- 
brown; tail spots aé very end of inner webs of two outer pairs of tail 
feathers only, and cut squarely off—a peculiarity distinguishing the species 
in any plumage. 9? not particularly different from the g¢ : young, an ob- 
scure-looking species, brownish above like a young yellow-rump, but upper 
tail coverts yellowish-olive, and under tail coverts apt to show quite bright 
yellow in contrast with the dingy yellowish white or brownish white of other 
under parts ; pectoral and lateral streaks obscure ; crown generally showing 
chestnut traces; but in any plumage, known by absence of white wing-bars 
and peculiarity of the tail spots, as just said. 54, wing 24, tail 24. Last- 
ern North America, abundant: usually found in fields, along hedgerows and 
roadsides, with yellow-rumps and sparrows; the most terrestrial species of 
the genus, often recalling a titlark ; remains in the fall latest of any, except 
the yellow-rump. Winters in Florida and the West Indies (Allen). S. 
petechia, Wius., vi, 19, pl. 28, f. 4; Nurr., i, 364; Aup., ii, 55, pl. 90; 
Bp., 2885-.38ke ve Pee ke Re Se eee 

Pine Warbler. Pine-creeping Warbler. Uniform yellowish-olive above, 
yellow below, paler or white on belly and under tail coverts, shaded and 
sometimes obsoletely streaked with darker on the sides; superciliary line 
yellow; wing-bars white; tail-blotches confined to two outer pairs of feathers, 
large, oblique... 9 and young, similar, duller; sometimes merely olive-gray 
above and sordid whitish below. The variations in precise shade are inter- 
minable ; but the species may always be known by the lack of any special sharp 


1-2, — carolmensis, 3-7, Troglodytes edon, 8-1 Seiurus noveboracensis, 
121A Mmotilta varia, 15-16, Dendreca striata, 17-16,Pipilo exythrophthalmus 19-20, 
- Fyranga estiva ay 


v7 


SYLVICOLIDZH, WARBLERS.—GEN. 36. 105 


markings whatever, except the superciliary line; and by the combination of 
white wing-bars with large oblique tail-spots confined to the two outer pairs 
of feathers. One of the largest species: 53 to nearly 6. Eastern United 
States, very abundant in pine woods and cedar thickets; has an extensive 
breeding range, and is apparently resident in southern portions. Vireo 
vigorsit Nutr., i, 318; S. pinus WIitS., iii, 25, pl. 19, f. 4; Nurr., i, 387; 
ROM it. 5 5. wk te lt SC CPINUS. 

Oss. The two following species, ascribed to North America, are not now 
known :— 

Blue Mountain Warbler. Sytvia montana Wits., v, 113, pl. 44, f. 2 (Blue 
Mountains of Virginia). Auvp., ii, 69, pl. 98 (‘* California”). Bp., 278. Professor 
Baird suggests that some plumage of D. pinus or striata may furnish the clue to 
this lost species; but these are among the largest warblers, whilst Wilson says 
“‘leneth four inches and three-quarters.” Mr. Turnbull (Birds of New Jersey, p. 
18) says, without qualification, it is the young of D. cerulea. I think myself that 
it is simply the young of D. virens! of which, it seems, Wilson never recognized 
an autumnal example. A September specimen of virens, before me as I write, 
agrees almost precisely with Wilson’s description — rich yellow olive ; front, cheeks, 
chin and sides of neck, yellow; * * two exterior tail feathers white on the 
inner vanes from the middle to the tip, and edged on the outer side with white, etc. 
Now D. virens is the only Easteru species, showing this latter feature, that agrees 
with the other assigned characters at all. It is curious additional evidence that I 
am right in this surmise, that the original of Audubon’s figure, in the British 
Museum, came from ‘“California;” for I suppose that this specimen was the 
young of occidentalis or townsendii, some of the plumages of which, as well as can 
be made out, are with difficulty distinguishable from immature virens. 


Carbonated Warbler. Syrivia cARBoNATA Aup. Orn. Biog. i, 308, pl. 60; Norr., 
i, 405; Aoup., ii, 95, pl. 109; Bp., 287. Only known by the figure and description 
of a pair killed in Kentucky. I have no idea what this is; it may not be a 
Dendreca at all. Audubon himself put it among the worm-eating warblers. 


36. Genus SEIURUS Swainson. 

*.* The birds of this genus have been classed with the thrushes, and also with 
the titlarks (which they somewhat resemble in habits, being walking birds), but 
they have no special affinity with either. They are simply terrestrial warblers, 
closely related to gen. 37, 38. Five species are 
enumerated, but the exotic representatives of nove- 
boracensis and ludovicianus seem to be mere vari- 


eties. 
* Crown orange-brown, with two black stripes ; no 


superciliary line. 

Golden-crowned Thrush. Oven Bird. Bright 
olive green; below pure white, thickly spotted 
with dusky on breast and along sides; a narrow 
maxillary line of blackish; under wing coverts 
tinged with yellow; a white eye-ring; legs flesh color; wings and tail 
- unmarked. Sexes alike; young similar. Length 53-64; wing 3; tail 23. 


Fic. 45. Golden-crowned Thrush. 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 14 


106 SYLVICOLIDA, WARBLERS.—GEN. 37. 


Eastern North America, West Indies, Mexico, Alaska (Dall). A very 
common bird in open woodland, spending much of its time on the ground 
rustling among the leaves; noted for its loud monotonous song, and its 
curious nest, which is placed on the ground and roofed over; whence the 
name “ovenbird.” Wd138., ii, 88, pl. 14, f 2; Nurt.,i, 355; Aups Ory 
Biog. ii, 253; v, 447; pl. 143; Bp., 260. . . . . . AUROCAPILLUS. 

** Crown plain, like the back ; a conspicuous superciliary line. 

Water Thrush. Water Wagtail. (Puatre ir; figs. 9,10, 11; 9a, 10a, 
lla.) Deep olivaceous-brown ; below, white, more or less tinged with pale 
yellowish, thickly and sharply spotted with the color of the back, except on 
lower belly and crissum: superciliary line yellowish; feet dark. Length 
54-6 ; wing 23; tail 24; dill about 4. North America, everywhere ; a com- 
mon bird of low watery thickets, in the habit of constantly vibrating the 
tail as it moves about in the underbrush. Wixzs., iii, 66, pl. 22, f. 5; 
Nutt., i, 353; Aup., Orn. Biog. v, 284, pl. 433 ; Bp., 261. NovEBORACENSIS. 

Large-billed Water Thrush. (PuaTe nu, figs. 8, 8a.) Very similar to the 
last; rather larger, averaging about 6, with the wing 3; bill especially 
longer and stouter, over $, and tarsus nearly 1. Under parts white, only 
faintly tinged, and chiefly on the flanks and crissum, with buffy (not sul- 
phury yellow) ; the streaks sparse, pale, and not very sharp: throat, as well 
as belly and crissum, unmarked; legs pale. It may prove only a variety, 
but I have yet to see a specimen I cannot distinguish on sight; the size of 
the bill is not by any means the only character, as some seem to suppose, 
though it is the principal one. Eastern United States, rather southern, and 
not very common; north to Massachusetts (Allen). Aup. Orn. Biog. i, 
995 pl..19)5. Bp. 5;2625 3.) 6 GROG) Gt Gel ice te onde 


37. Genus OPORORNIS Baird. 


Connecticut Warbler. Olive-green, becoming ashy on the head; below, 
from the breast, yellow, olive-shaded on the sides ; chin, throat and breast 
brownish-ash ; a whitish ring round eye; wings and tail unmarked, glossed 
with olive ; under mandible and feet pale; no decided markings anywhere ; 
54; wing 23; tail 2. In spring birds the ash of the head, throat and breast 
is quite pure, and then the resemblance to Geothlypis philadelphia is close ; 
but in the latter the wings are little if any longer than the tail. In the fall 
the upper parts from bill to tail are nearly uniform olive. Eastern United 
States, not common, and very rarely observed in the spring; a quiet, shy 
inhabitant of brushwood and thickets. Of late very abundant in the fall 
about Cambridge, Mass., where in two seasons over a hundred aa 
have been taken (Allen). Wiuus., v, 64, pl. 24, f. 4; Nurr., 2d ed. 
403; Aub; i, wk, pl 99: sbp.e2tu. 2 oo eee - « -AGEHISe 

Kentucky Warbler. Clear alapeeate ne ; entire sifidee mars bright yellow, 
olive-shaded along sides; crown black, separated by a rich yellow super- 
ciliary line (which curls around the eye behind) from a broad black bar 


SYLVICOLIDZ, WARBLERS.—GEN. 38. 107 


running from bill below eye and thence down the side of the neck; wings 
and tail unmarked, glossed with olive; feet flesh color; 53; wing 23-3; tail 
2-24. Young birds have the black obscure if not wanting; in the fall, 
the black feathers of the crown of the adult are skirted with ash. Eastern 
United States, north to the Connecticut Valley ; 
not abundant, but common in certain sections, as in 
southern Illinois (Aidgway) and Kansas (Cowes). = 
Weare, 1, So, pl. 25, f. 2; Nurr., i, 399; Avp., 

mess. (45 Bp, 247... . +. +. FORMOSUS. 


38. Genus GEOTHILYPIS Cabanis. 


Maryland Yellow-throat. @ in spring: olive- 
green, rather grayer anteriorly, forehead and a 
broad band through the eye to the neck pure black, bordered above with 
hoary ash; chin, throat, breast, under tail coverts and edge of wing rich 
yellow, fading into whitish on the belly ; wings and tail unmarked, glossed 
with olive ; bill black, feet flesh colored. . 9 in spring, without the definite 
black and ash on the head, the crown Generally brownish, the yellow pale 
and restricted. The young, in general, resembles 
the 9, at any rate lacking the head markings of the 
$ ; but it is sometimes buffy brownish below, some- 
times almost entirely clear yellow. In any plumage, 
the bird is distinguished from warblers of any other 
genus, by having the wings shorter, or at most not 
longer, than the tail; and from the two following 
Fic. 47, Maryland Yellow- species by having no clear ash on the throat. Length 

: 43-5; wing and tail 1{-24. United States, from 

Atlantic to Pacific; Mexico, West Indies and Central America. An abund- 
ant and familiar inhabitant of, shrubbery and underbrush, the sameness of 
which is enlivened by its sprightly presence and hearty song, throughout 
the summer months. Wuts., i, 88, pl. 6, f.1; Nurr., i, 401; Aun., ii, 
mame 202; Bp., 74). . .:. ars eee TRI CHEASe 
Mourning Warbler. Bright anes, ficlone ree velleer: on the head the 
olive passes insensibly into ete ; in high plumage the throat and breast are 
black, but are generally ash, showing black traces, the feathers being black 
skirted with ash, producing a peculiar appearance suggestive of the bird’s 
wearing crape; wings and tail unmarked, glossed with olive; under mandi- 
ble and feet flesh color; no white about eyes. Young birds have little or 
no ashy on the head, and no black on the throat, thus closely resembling 
Oporornis agilis, but are of course distinguishable by their generic charac- 
ters; 54-54; wing and tail, each, about 24. Eastern United States, rare ; 
Minnesota, “abundant” ( Trippe) ; a shy, retiring inhabitant of dense shrub- 
bery. Wirs., i, 101, pl. 14; Nurr., i, 404; jee yj il}. 16; ple LOL; Bp., 
ae . . PHILADELPHIA. 
Macgillivray’s Werdler; Pucsisey like the lasts species, excepting that it 


Fic. 46. Kentucky Warbler. 


108 SYLVICOLIDZ, WARBLERS.—GEN. 39. 


has white eyelids. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U. S., and southward. 
One of the most abundant warblers in the mountains of Colorado, and 
common elsewhere in the West. Tvrichas tolmiei Nutr., 2d ed. i, 460; 
Avup., ii, 74, pl. 100; Bp., 248; Coop., 96: -. . ... MAGGIDINVEAa 


Subfamily IOTERIINZL. Chats. 


A small group, recently framed to accommodate the following genus and its two 
tropical allies; it is perhaps questionable whether they are most naturally classed 
with the Warblers. Jcteria shows the following points :— Larger than any other 
Sylvicolide ; bill short, stout, compressed, culmen and commissure both curved, 
tip unnotched, rictus unbristled ; wings much rounded, shorter or at most not longer 
than the tail. Sexes alike. Probably contains but one species. 


39. Genus ICTERIA Vieillot. 


Yellow-breasted Chat. Bright olive green, below golden yellow, belly 
abruptly white; lore black, isolating the white under eyelid from a white 
superciliary line above and a short white maxillary line below; wings and 
tail unmarked, glossed with olive; bill and 
feet blue-black ; 7-74; wing about 3; tail about 
34. Eastern United States, north to Massa- 
chusetts, abundant; an exclusive inhabitant of 
low tangled undergrowth, and oftener heard 
than seen, except during the mating season, 
when it performs the extravagant aerial evolu- 
tions for which, as well as for the variety and 
volubility of its song, it is noted. Nest in a crotch of a bush near the 
ground: eggs 4-5, white, speckled with reddish brown. Pipra polyglotta 
Wus., i, 90 pl. 6, f. 2; Icteria viridis Nutt., i, 299: Avp. Orn. Biog. 
ii, 223, v, 433, pl. 187; Bp., 248; Icteria virens Bp., Rev. 228. VIRENS. 

Var. LoneicaupaA. Long-tailed Chat. Very similar; the olive duller and grayer, 
sometimes quite ashy on the head: tail usually but not always longer, averaging 
perhaps 31. Replaces virens from the Plains to the Pacific, U. S., and southward. 
Bp., 249 ; Cooper, 98. 


Fic. 48. Yellow-breasted Chat. 


Subfamily SETOPHAGINA. Flycatching Warblers. 


These have the bill depressed, considerably broader than high at base, notched 
and usually hooked at tip, and furnished with long stiff bristles that reach halfway 
or more from the nostrils to the end of the bill. In other respects they are not 
distinguished from the rest of the family. While many or most other Sylvicolide 
are expert in taking insects on the wing, these capture their prey in the air with 
special address, representing, in this respect, the true clamatorial flycatchers, with 
which some species of Setophagine used to be classed, in the extensive old genus 
‘*Muscicapa.” As I have said, the Sylvicoline are peculiarly North American ; 
while the Setophagine are most developed in Central and South America, where 
they are represented by three or four genera, and upwards of forty species. It is 
hardly necessary to add that, however closely some of them may resemble the 


SYLVICOLIDZ, WARBLERS.—GEN. 40. 109 


Tyrannide, they are at once distinguished from these clamatorial birds by the 
oscine character of the tarsi, and the presence of only nine primaries. 


40. Genus MYIODIOCTES Audubon. 


Hooded’ Flycatcher. Clear yellow-olive, below rich yellow shaded along 
the sides, whole head and neck pure black, enclosing a broad golden mask 
across forehead and through eyes; wings un- 
marked, glossed with olive; tail with large white 
blotches on the two outer pairs of feathers, as in 
Dendreca; bill black, feet flesh color. 9 with 
no black on the head ; that of the crown replaced 
by olive, that of the throat by yellow; young ¢ 
with the black much restricted or interrupted, if 
not wholly wanting as in the ¢ (Muscicapa selbyi 
Avp. Orn. Biog. i, 46, pl. 9). Length 5-5}; 
wing about 2?, tail about 24. Eastern United States, apparently not very 
common. Muscicapa cucullata Wi1S., iii. 101, pl. 26, f. 3; Nurr., i, 373; 
pees, ml. 72>; Bp., 292. . . . . af eee METRATUS. 

Green Black-capped Flycatcher. Clear Rstlirn olivves ; crown glossy blue- 
black ; forehead, sides of head and entire under parts bright yellow; wings 
and tail plain, glossed with olive ; upper mandible dark, 
under pale; feet brown; 9 and young similar, colors 
not so bright, the black cap obscure. Small; 43-5 ; 
wing about 24; tail about 2. North America, at large ; 
common. WItS., iii, 103, pl. 26, f. 4; Nurt., i, 408; 
ee ha, Green Black-capped merit. pl. 13 bY, 293. 2. 2). | PUSILLUS. 

papcntoher. Canadian Flycatcher. Bluish-ash; crown speckled 
with lanceolate black marks, crowded and generally continuous on the fore- 
head; the latter divided lengthwise by a slight yellow line; short super- 
ciliary line and edges of eyelids, yellow; lores black, continuous with black 
under the eye, and this passing as a chain of black 
streaks down the side of the neck and prettily encir- 
cling the throat like a necklace; excepting these 
streaks and the white under tail coverts, the entire 
under parts are clear yellow; wings and tail un- 
marked ; feet flesh color. In the ¢ and young the 
black is obscure or much restricted, and the back 
may be slightly glossed with olive: but they cannot 
be mistaken. In this plumage the bird is Wyiodioctes ¥16-5!. Canadian Flycatcher. 
bonapartii Aup., ii, 17, pl. 73; Nurv., i, 2d ed. 330; Bp., 295. Length 
about 54; wing 24; tail 24. Eastern United States, an abundant and beau- 
tiful woodland species. WIrzs., ii, 100, pl. 26, f. 2; Nurr., i, 372; Avup., 
Maeeep (2, Bp., 294. . . . . . CANADENSIS. 

Oss. The ai Rended Flycatcher, 7 ae MINUTA oe ug Vlg G2, pl. 50, f. 
2; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 334; Aup., i, 238, pl. 67; Bp., 293, now unknown, is conjec- 


Fic. 49. Hooded Flycatcher. 


110 C@REBIDE, HONEY CREEPERS.—GEN. 41, 42. 


tured to belong to this genus; but this can hardly be, for Wilson says it has two 
white wing bands, a character not shown in Myiodioctes. There is no reasonable 
probability that any species of the family, inhabiting the Middle States in June, 
remains to be detected. I have no doubt that the bird is a Dendreca, and nothing 
in the description forbids its reference to one of the endless plumages of D. pinus! 


41. Genus SETOPHAGA Swainson. 


Redstart. @ lustrous blue-black, belly and crissum white, sides of the 
breast, large spot at bases of the remiges, and basal half of the tail feathers 
(except the middle pair) fiery-orange; belly often tinged with the same ; 
bill and feet black. 9 olivaceous, ashier on the head, entirely white below, 
wings and tail blackish, with the flame color of the g represented by 
yellow; young ¢ like the 9? but browner, the yellow of an orange hue. 
From the circumstance that many spring males are shot in the general 
plumage of the female, but showing irregular isolated black patches, it is 
probable that the species requires at least two years to gain its perfect 
plumage. Length 54; wing and tail about 24. Eastern North America, 
very abundant, in woodland. Wiuts., i, 103, pl. 6, f. 6; Nurz.,i, 291; 
Aup., 1, 240, pl. 68; Bp., 297.) 3°. se 

Painted Flycatcher. % lustrous black, middle of breast and belly carmine 
red; eyelids, wing coverts and crissum white, inner quills edged with white, 
outer tail feathers mostly white. @ not particularly different. 5; wing 
and tail, each 28; tarsus 3. A Mexican species, recently found in Arizona. 
(Tucson, Bendire.) Bp., 298; Rev., 256... . . . 3 % 3 eee 

Oss. One other Mexican species of this genus (S. miniata), and two species of 
closely allied genera, Basileuterus rufifrons and Cardellina rubra (both Mexican), 
have been admitted to our fauna, though they have not, to my knowledge, been 
actually taken within our limits. 


Family COAREBIDA. Honey Creepers. 


Primaries nine, and other external characters very nearly as in the last family ; 
but the bill is generally slenderer and sharper, and often a little decurved. The 
line between the two families has never been drawn with precision, and has become 
the more difficult of expression since some of the Sylvicolide have proven possessed 
of a peculiarity of the Cawrebide —deeply bifid, penicillate tongue. A small group, 
containing perhaps forty species, of pretty little birds, confined to tropical Amer- 
ica. Our species is merely a stray visitor to Florida. ; 


42. Genus CERTHIOLA Sundevall. 


floney Creeper. Dark olivaceous ash; superciliary line and under parts 
dull white; belly, edge of wing, and rump, bright yellow; wings dusky, 
with a white spot at base of primaries; tail dusky, tipped with white; bill 
and feet black; “eyes blue.” Length 44; wing 24; tail 1. Indian Key 
(Wurdemann). -BD., 924. (0 hs) a) a ea ae) ne eI aro 


TANAGRIDZH, TANAGERS.—GEN. 43. 1 


Family TANAGRIDA. Tanagers. 


An extensive, brilliant family, confined to America, abounding in species be- 
tween the tropics. Its position is a point at issue with ornithologists ; it may how- 
ever, not unnaturally follow the Cerebide and Sylvicolide, though certainly no fam- 
ilies should stand between it and Fringillide. In fact certain tropical forms might 
be assigned to either indifferently. The best definition of the tanagers I have seen 
is that given by the distinguished ornithologist who called them ‘dentirostral 
finches ;” but this important generalization, like other happy epigrams, is insuscep- 
tible of application in detail, and the tanagers remain to be precisely characterized. 
As a consequence, the number of species can hardly be approximately estimated ; 
but upwards of three hundred are usually enumerated. 

The single well established North American genus may be recognized, among all 
the birds of our country, by the combination of nine primaries and scutellate tarsi 
with a turgid bill, notched at the tip and toothed or lobed near the middle of the 
superior maxillary tomia ; though this last character is sometimes so obscure that it 
might be looked at without being seen. The species of Pyranga are birds of bril- 
liant colors, with great seasonal and sexual differences of plumage. They are 
frugivorous and insectivorous, and consequently migratory in the United States. 
They inhabit woodland, lay 4—5 dark colored, speckled eggs, nest in trees, and are 
fair songsters. “In distribution they are rather southerly, not passing northward 
beyond the United States. One species of another genus, Euphonia elegantissima, 
has been admitted to our fauna, but apparently upon insufficient evidence. 


43. Genus PYRANGA Vieillot. 


Scarlet Tanager. ¢% scarlet, with black wings and tail; bill and feet 
dark; 9 clear olive green, below clear greenish yellow, wings and tail 
dusky, edged with olive; no white wing-bars. Young ¢, at first, like the 
¢ ; afterward variegated with red, green and black. Length 7-73; wing 
4; tail3. Eastern United States, abundant. Wits., ii, 42, pl. 11, f. 3,4; 
at 2es > AUD., 1, 226, pl. 209; Bp., 300. . . . . . RUBRA. 

Summer fed-bird. @ rich rose-red, or vermilion, including wings and 
tail; the wings, however, dusky on the inner webs; bill rather pale; feet 
darker; 9 dull brownish-olive, below dull brownish-yellow; no white wing- 
bars; young ¢ like the 9 ; the ¢ changing 
plumage shows red and green confused in : Se 
irregular patches, but no black. The 9, with Ss We 
a general resemblance to 9 rubra, is distin- 5 eS 
guished by the dull brownish, ochre or buffy es 
tinge, the greenish and yellowish of rubra ig. btw suaknevmeabied: 
being much purer; the bill and feet, also, are Breeapae TEREEGE- 
generally much paler in estiva. Size of rubra, or rather larger. Eastern, 
Southern and South-western United States, hardly north to New England ; 
abundant. Wiuts., i, 95, pl. 6, f. 3; Nurr., i, 469; Avp., iii, 222, pl. 208 ; 
Bp., 301. ~y| ( EN «* <2 ie Ln Ae oe 2 ASTIVA. 

Oss. The Pyranga cooperi, lately based by Mr. Ridgway (Proc. Acad. Phila. 
1869, 130) upon New Mexican specimens, seems scarcely tenable. The characters 


112 HIRUNDINIDZ, SWALLOWS. —GEN. 43. 


are not very tangible, and there is little probability of their proving constant. 
Though the difference in the shape of the bill of the type specimens is evident (fig. 
52, a and b), yet this is no more than that oc- 
curring in Eastern specimens of unquestionable 
estiva. (See Pirate uy, figs. 19, 20, a, b.) It 
may, however, take rank as a geographical variety. 


bar Hepatic Tanager. Ashy-red, or liver- 
brown, brighter red on the head: and under 

parts; sides ashy-shaded; bill plumbeous 

HG. BB. Hapablo Tanager black, conspicuously toothed; ¢ like that of 


the foregoing, but ashier on the back. Size of the last. New Mexico, 
Arizona, and southward. Bp., 802; Rrpaway, Proc. Acad. Phila. 1869, 
132; Coor., 144. ; ue Ag) bee fice! Se at sitet HEPATICA. 

Louisiana Tanager. § bright yellow, middle of back, wings, and tail, 
black ; head crimson; wings with two yellow bars. 9 most nearly resem- 
bling that of rubra, but distinguished from this or any of the foregoing by 
presence of two whitish or greenish-yellow wing-bars, and much edging of 
the same color on the inner quills. Immature g shows the black of the 
back mixed with olive, and the head only tinged with red; at first it is like 
the 9. Size of the first species. U.S., Rocky Mountains to the Pacific 
(not in Louisiana!). Wits., iii, 27, pl. 20, f. 1; Nurt., i, 471; Aup., iii, 
231, pl. 210; Bp., 303; Coop., 145. . . . . . »°. ZUDOyIee 


Family HIRUNDINIDZ. Swallows. 


Fissirostral Oscines. Bill short, broad, flat, deeply cleft, the gape wide and 
about twice as long as the culmen—it generally reaches to about opposite the 
eyes. Nasal fossz short, broad, the nostrils directed more or less upward, some- 
times circular and completely open, sometimes overhung by a straight flat scale. 
Rictus with a few inconspicuous bristles or none. Wings extremely long, of nine 
primaries, of which the first equals or exceeds the second, the rest being rapidly 
graduated, the ninth hardly or not half as long as the first ; secondaries and their 
coverts extremely short. Tail of 12 (rarely 10?) rectrices, usually forked, some- 
times forficate with filamentous outer feathers. Feet short and weak; tarsi 
scutellate (occasionally feathered), commonly shorter than even the lateral toes ; 
basal joint of middle toe adherent to one or both lateral toes ; toes with the normal 
number of phalanges. 

This is a perfectly natural group, well distinguished by the foregoing characters. 
The swallows alone represent, among Oscines, the fissirostral type of structure ; 
they have a close superficial resemblance to the swifts and goat-suckers of another 
order, but the relation is one of analogy, not of affinity, though all these birds 
were formerly classed together in the highly unnatural ‘‘ order” Fissirostres. (See 
beyond, under Cypselide and Caprimulgide.) 

A hundred species of swallows are recorded; probably about three-fourths of 
them are genuine. They are distributed all over the world; the most generalized 
types, like Hirundo itself, are more or less cosmopolitan, but each of the great 
divisions of the globe has its peculiar subgenera or particular sets of species. Thus, 
all the American groups except Hirundo and Cotyle are peculiar to this continent. 


. 


HIRUNDINIDE, SWALLOWS.—GEN. 44, 45. 113 


Swallows are insectivorous, and therefore migratory in cold and temperate lati- 
tudes ; unsurpassed in powers of flight, they are enabled to pass with ease and 
swiftness from one country to another, as the state of the weather may require. 
With us a few warm days in February and March often allure them northward, only 
to be driven back again by the cold, giving rise to the well-known adage. No birds 
are better known to all classes than these, and none so welcome to man’s abode— 
cherished witnesses of peace and plenty in the homestead, dashing ornaments of 


the busy thoroughfare. 
The habits of swallows best illustrate the modifying influences of civilization on 


indigenous birds. Formerly, they all bred on cliffs, in banks, in hollows of trees, 
and similar places, and many do so still. But most of our species have forsaken 
these primitive haunts to avail themselves of the convenient artificial nesting places 
that man, intentionally or otherwise, provides. Some are just now in a transition 
state; thus the purple martin, in settled parts of the country, chooses the boxes 
everywhere provided for its accommodation, while in the West it retains its old 
custom of breeding in hollow trees. 


\ 


44, Genus HIRUNDO Linneus. 


Barn Swallow. Lustrous steel blue; below, rufous or pale chestnut 
of varying shade; forehead, chin and throat deep chestnut; breast with an 
imperfect steel-blue collar; tail forficate, 
its outer feathers attenuate, all but the 
middle pair with white spots on the inner 
web; bill and feet black. Sexes alike; 
young less lustrous, much paler below, 
tail simply forked. Wing 43-43; tail 24 
to 5 inches. North America, abundant 
in the United States in the summer, 
breeding in colonies in barns and out- 
_ houses; eggs white, speckled. Wmuzs., v, 
34, pl. 38; Nurt., i, 601; Avup., i, 181, 
pl. 48; Bp., 308. . . . HORREORUM. 


45. Genus TACHYCINETA Cabanis. 


White-bellied Swallow. Lustrous 
green, below pure white; tail simply 
emarginate. Young similar, not so 
glossy. 6-63; wing 5; tail 24. North he ra i hl 
America, abundant in the United States in summer. Wuts., v, 49, pl. 38; 
meee eos; AuD., 1, 175, pl. 46; Bv., 310. . .-. .-. “BICOLOR. 

Violet-green Swallow. Opaque velvety green, purple and violet ; spot over 
the eye, sides of rump, and whole under parts pure white. Young similar, 
duller. 43-54; wing 44; tail 2, emarginate. Rocky Mountains to the 
Pacific, U. S.; an exquisite species, breeding in knotholes and woodpeckers’ 
holes, in pine woods and in weather-worn holes in cliffs. (ALLEN, Am. 
Nat. 1872, 274.) Auvp.,i, 186, pl. 49; Bp., 309; Coor., 107. THALASSINA. 


KEY TON. A. BIRDS. 156 


114 HIRUNDINIDA, SWALLOWS.—GEN. 46, 47, 48, 49. 


46. Genus PETROCHELIDON Cabanis. 


Cliff Swallow. Eave Swallow. Lustrous steel-blue ; forehead whitish (or 
brown), rump rufous, chin, throat and sides of head chestnut; a steel-blue 
spot on the throat; breast, sides and generally a cervical collar rusty-gray, 
whitening on the belly. Young sufficiently similar. 5; wing 43; tail 24, 
nearly square. North America, in all suitable places. Naturally this 
species builds on cliffs; but throughout the settled portions of the country 
it now places its curious bottle-shaped nests of mud under the eaves of 
barns and outhouses. Nurr.i,603 ; Aup.,i, 177, pl.47; Bp., 309. LUNIFRONS. 


47. Genus COTYLE Boie. 


Bank Swallow. Sand Martin. Lustreless gray, with a pectoral band of 
the same ; other under parts white. A curious little tuft of feathers at the 
bottom of the tarsus. Sexes exactly alike; young similar, the feathers 
often skirted with rusty or whitish. 44-43; wing 33-4; tail 2, simply 
emarginate. North America, very abundant; breeds in immense troops in 
holes excavated in banks of soft earth. Wuts., v, 46, pl. 88; Nurr., i, 
GOT; "AUD.,. 1; 187; pl. 503 Bp., 31d. P RIPARIA. 


48. Genus STELGIDOPTERYX Baird. 


Rough-winged Swallow. Lustreless brownish-gray, paler below, whiten- 
ing on the belly. Rather larger than the last; no feathery tuft on tarsus ; 
outer web of outer primary, in the ¢, converted into a series of recurved 
hooklets, which are wanting, or much weaker, in the 9. United States; 
rare or wanting in New England. Avp., i, 193, pl. 51; Bp., 373; Cougs, 
Proc? Phila. Acad. 1866; 37%. 2) 9s5) sa) “ee 0 3 oe 


49. Genus PROGNE Boie. 


Purple Martin. Lustrous blue-black ; no purple anywhere. The 9 and 
young are much duller above, and more or less white below, streaked with 
gray. Bill very stout for this family, curved at the end; nostrils circular, 
opening upward, not roofed over. Length 7 or more; wing nearly 6; tail 
34, simply forked. United States, very abundant. Wus., v, 58, pl. 39, 
f.2,3; Nurr., 1, 5983 Aup., i, 170;pl..45;.Bb., 3145. ~ > .PuRepee 

Oxzs. Other species or varieties of Progne, requiring confirmation, are attributed 
to North America. See Cass., Ill., 246 (California); Bp., 923, and Rev., 277 
(Florida). 


Family AMPELIDA. 


This appears to be an arbitrary and unnatural association of a few genera that 
agree in some particulars, but are widely different in others. The composition and 
position of the group differ with almost every writer; some place it in Clamatores, 
next to the Tyrannide. I think that the family should be dismembered ; Baird has 
already shown how near the Myiadestine are to the true Thrushes, and doubtless 
the other two subfamilies here presented may be properly dissociated. 


AMPELINE, WAXWINGS.—GEN. 950. TS 


Birds of the three following genera agree in this character :— Bill short, broad, 
flattened, plainly notched at tip, with wide rictus, and culmen or gonys hardly if 
at all exceeding half the length of the commissure; basal phalanx of middle toe 
joined with outer toe for about two-thirds its length, and to inner toe for about half 
its length. The three genera, or subfamilies, that follow, may be readily and pre- 
cisely defined. 


Subfamily AMPELINA. Wazwings. 


Bill as just described ; nasal fossz broad, nasal opening exposed, but overarched 
by a broad scale more or less completely covered with close-set velvety antrorse 
feathers. Wings with ten primaries, but the first spurious, very short and displaced 
(on the outer side of the second) so as to be readily overlooked ; point of the wing 
formed by the third primary, closely supported by the second and fourth, the fifth 
being abruptly shorter. Inner quills, as a rule, and sometimes the tail feathers, 
tipped with horny appendages like red sealing-wax. Tail short, square, } or 2 as 
long as the wings, the under coverts highly developed, reaching nearly to its end. 
Feet weak; the tarsus shorter than the middle toe and claw, its podotheca some- 
what receding from strict oscine character. 

Of this subfamily as here restricted there is only one genus with three species— 
one of Europe and America, one of Asia and Japan, and one confined to this 
country. They are songless, in this differing altogether from the Myiadestine and 
Ptilogonydine ; and I should not be surprised if their relationships proved to be 
entirely with a certain exotic clamatorial family. Although by a strange mis- 
nomer sometimes called ‘‘chatterers” they are among the most silent of all birds, 
their only voice being a weak wheezy kind of whistle. They feed chiefly on berries 
and other soft fruits, but also on insects, and are gregarious and migratory. The 
sexes are alike ; the head is adorned with a beautiful crest; the wings have unique 
ornaments, the use of which is unknown; the tail is tipped with yellow (red in the 
Japanese species, phonicopterum); the plumage is extremely smooth, and of a 
nameless color. Young birds lack the curious horny appendages, and have the 
general plumage streaked. , 


50. Genus AMPELIS Linnzus. 

Bohemian Waxwing. Under tail coverts chestnut; front and sides of 
the head tinged with a richer, more orange-brown shade; primary wing 
coverts tipped with white ; each quill with 
a sharp white (or yellowish) stripe at the 
end of the outer web; chin velvety black, 
in a large well defined area; narrow line 
across forehead, along sides of head => x 
through eyes, meeting its fellow on the Se 
occiput behind the crest, also velvety SSS 
black; no white on under eyelid nor igs Bios Rohenian Waawine: 
across forehead; no yellowish on belly ; a, appendages of the inner quills. 
bill and feet black. 7 or 8 inches long, wing about 43. Northern North 
America; U. S. casually in winter, but sometimes appearing in immense 
roving flocks; S. sometimes to 35°. Auvp., iv, 269, pl. 246; Nurv., i, 
IED Oat Mle 230) 20 Pozi ah art Vs oa) SE eve? 5s ME Se OARRULUS: 


116 PTILOGONYDIN®, MYIADESTINA.—GEN. 51. 


Carolina Waxwing. Cedar Bird. Cherry Bird. Under tail coverts 
whitish ; little or no orange-brown about head; no white on wings; chin 
black, shading gradually into the color of the throat; a black frontal, loral 
and transocular stripe, as in garrulus, but this bordered on the forehead with 
whitish ; a white touch on lower eyelid, feathers on side of under jaw 
white ; abdomen soiled yellowish. 6 or 7 long ; 
wing about 3%. Eastern North America to 
Hudson’s Bay; an abundant bird, irregularly 
migratory, going in flocks nearly the whole 
year; breeds late (in June) in orchards and 
thickets ; the nest is placed in the crotch of a 
tree; the eggs are 3-4, dull pale bluish, 
speckled with purplish and blackish. Wiuts., 
i, 107, pl. 7; Nurt., i, 248; App yiy pe 
pl. 245; Bp., 818. ... «...  « CEDRGRmie 


Subfanily PTILOGONYDIN. Ptilogonys. 


Bill much as in the last subfamily, but slenderer for 
its length; nasal scale naked; a few short bristles about the base of the bill. 
Tarsus scutellate anteriorly, and sometimes also on the sides; about as long as 
the middle toe and claw; hind toe remarkably short. Wings not longer than the 
tail, much rounded, of ten primaries; the 1st spurious, less than half as long as the 
2nd, which is only about as long as the 8th; point of the wing formed by the 4th, 
5th and 6th or 8rd quills. Tail long, nearly even, with broad plane feathers 
(Phenopepia); or much graduated, with tapering central feathers (Ptilogonys). 
Head conspicuously crested ; sexes (in our genus) dissimilar; young not streaked 
or spotted. There are only two genera of the subfamily as thus restricted 
— Phenopepla and Ptilogonys, the latter with two strongly marked species of 
Mexico and Central America. 


Fic. 56. Carolina Waxwing. 


51. Genus PHAANOPEPLA Sclater. 


Black Ptilogonys.  @ uniform lustrous black ; wings with a large white 
area, most of the inner web of each primary, except the first, being white ; 
@ brown, the white on the wings restricted or obsolete; young ¢ gradating 
between the coloration of both sexes. 73; wing and tail 34-4. Valley of 
the Colorado and southward; a delightful songster, though the fact seems to 
have been ignored. Cass., Ill., 169, pl. 29; Bp., 320, and Rev., 416; 
Coop., 131. 0 wort eth oes em ee ele” Sone ee 


Subfamily MYIADESTINA. Flycatching Thrushes. 


Bill as in the last subfamily. Tarsus booted, and toes deeply cleft, as in Turdide. 
Lateral toes very unequal in length, the tip of the inner claw falling short of the 
base of -the middle. Wings of ten primaries, the 1st spurious, the 2nd about as 
long as the 6th, the point of the wing formed by the 3rd, 4th and 5th. Tail long, 
about equalling the wing, double-rounded, being forked centrally, graduated exter- 
nally ; all the feathers narrowing somewhat towards the end. Head subcrested ; 


VIREONIDZ, VIREOS.—GEN. 52. 117 


plumage sombre, variegated on the wings; sexes alike; young spotted, like 
thrushes. : 

The birds of the group thus defined are, as Baird has pointed out, more closely 
related to the Turdide than to the family with which they are usually associated. 
They consist of about a dozen species, mostly of the genus Myiadestes, though 
there are others called Cichlopsis and Platycichla. With one exception, they are 
birds of Central and South America, and the West Indies. Our species, formerly 
called ‘* Ptilogonys,” simply for want of an English name, which I here supply, 
is not to be confounded with the foregoing. It is an exquisite songster. 


52. Genus MYIADESTES Swainson. 


Townsend’s Flycatching Thrush. Nearly uniform ashy-gray, sometimes 
paler or mixed with whitish 
on throat, belly, crissum 
and under wing coverts; 
a whitish ring round the 
eye; quills variegated with 
pale cinnamon or buffy, 
showing as two oblique 
bands in the closed wing ; 
tail blackish, central feath- 
ers like the back, the outer- 
most pair edged and tipped, 
the two next pair tipped, 
with white. The young are 
speckled with round ful- 


Fic. 57. Townsend’s Flycatching Thrush. 
vous spots. Length about Bill and feet of natural size; wings and tail §. 


8; wing and tail about 44. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, United States. 
Norr., i, 2d ed., 361; Aup., i, 243, pl. 69; Bp., 321, and Rev., 429; 
Ee , CleClw  lk  Ct hU SC we | LOWNSENDII. 


Family VIREONIDZ. Vireos, or Greenlets. 


Bill shorter than the head, stout, compressed, distinctly notched and hooked at 
tip; rictus with conspicuous bristles; nostrils exposed, overhung with a scale, but 
reached by the small bristly erect frontal feathers. Toes soldered at base for the 
whole length of the basal joint of the middle one, which is united with the basal 
joint of the inner and the two basal joints of the outer, all these coherent 
phalanges very short. (Lateral toes unequal in the genus Vireo.) Tarsus equal 
to or longer than the middle toe and claw, scutellate in front, laterally undivided, 
except at extreme base. Wings moderate, of ten primaries, of which the first is 
short (one-half to one-fourth the second), or spurious, or apparently wanting (being 
rudimentary and displaced). 

This family was formerly united with the next (Laniide), chiefly on account of 
the resemblance in the shape of the bill of certain species to that of the shrikes ; 
but the likeness is never perfect, and there are other more important characters, 
especially in the structure of the feet, by which the two groups may be discrimi- 
nated. The Vireonidw are peculiar to America; they are a small family of five or 


118 VIREONIDEA, VIREOS.—GEN. 53. 


six genera and nearly seventy recorded species, of which about five-sixths appear 
to be genuine. The typical and principal genus, Vireo, containing nearly thirty 
species, is especially characteristic of North America, though several species occur 
in the West Indies and Central America; one genus and species, Laletes osburni, 
is exclusively West Indian; the rest — Cyclarhis, Hylophilus, Vireolanius, and 
Neochloe— are, with one exception, South and Central American. In further illus= 
tration of the characters of the group, I offer some remarks under the head of the 
only genus with which we have to do in the present connection. 


53. Genus VIREO Vieillot. 


The numerous species of this genus have been divided into several groups, but 
no violence will be done by considering them all as Vireo —in fact, it is difficult to 
do otherwise. For even the seemingly substantial division into two genera, ac- 
cording as there is an evident spurious first primary or apparently none, separates 
species, like gilvus and philadelphicus, hardly otherwise specifically distinguishable ; 
while another division into two genera, according to shape of the wings and length 
of the spurious first primary or its absence, is subject to some uncertainty of deter- 
mination, and unites species, like olivaceus and flavifrons, most dissimilar in other 
respects. The fact is, that almost every single species of Vireo has its own peculiar 
form, in shape of bill, proportions of primaries, ete., and these details cannot well 
be considered as of more than specific value. These slight differences are perfectly 
tangible and surprisingly constant, and render the deter- 
mination of the species comparatively easy, though these 
birds bear to each other a close general resemblance in 
size and color. They are all more or less olivaceous 
above, sometimes inclining to gray or plumbeous, with 
the crown either like the back, or else ashy—in one 
species, however, brown, and in another black; and white 
or whitish below, usually more or less tinged with yellow. 
The coloration is very constant, the sexes being indistin- 
guishable, and the young differing little, if at all, from the adults. All are small 
birds — about 5 or 6 inches long. As a group the student will probably have no 
difficulty in recognizing them by the foregoing diagnosis, as the character of the 
feet seems to be peculiar, among North American birds, and is at any rate 
diagnostic when taken in connection with the character of the bill—all those 
Oscines, as wrens, creepers, or titmice, that show much cohesion of the toes, 
having an entirely different bill. The bill of Vireo may be described as resembling 
that of a shrike in miniature— it is hooked and notched distinctly at the end, and 
there is sometimes a trace of a tooth behind the notch, and of a nick in the under 
mandible too. Some of the weaker-billed species might be carelessly mistaken for 
warblers — but there is no excuse for this, nor for confounding them with any of 
the little clamatorial flycatchers. 

The Vireos were long supposed to possess either nine or ten primaries. But that 
the important character of number of primaries —one marking whole families as 
we have seen—should here subside to specific value only, seemed suspicious; and 
the fact is, as announced by Baird (Review, pp. 160, 325) that all the species 
really have ten, only that, in some instances, the first primary is rudimentary and 
displaced, lying concealed outside the base of the second quill. 

The North American species are distributed over the temperate portions of this 


Fic. 58. Warbling Vireo. 


4) 


VIREONID, VIREOS.—GEN. 53. 119 


continent, and several of them are abundant birds of the Atlantic States, inhabit- 
ing woodland and shrubbery. They are exclusively insectivorous, and are therefore 
necessarily migratory in our latitudes. They build a neat pensile nest in the fork 
of a branchlet, and commonly lay four or five white speckled eggs. Next after the 
warblers, the greenlets are the most delightful of our forest birds, though their 
charms address the ear and not the eye. Clad in simple tints that harmonize with 
the verdure, these gentle songsters warble their lays unseen, while the foliage itself 
seems stirred to music. In the quaint and curious ditty of the white-eye — in the 
earnest, voluble strains of the red-eye —in the tender secret that the warbling vireo 
confides in whispers to the passing breeze — he is insensible, who does not hear the 
echo of thoughts he never clothes in words. 


ANALYSIS OF SPECIES. 


Primaries apparently 9 (the Ist rudimentary and displaced). (a) 
Primaries evidently 10 (the lst short or spurious). (b) 


cen els... lt lt tll kw lt! lw ee feavifrons. 
— white; crown ashy, not black-edged, hardly contrasting with back, .. . . . philadelphicus. 
— black-edged, back olive; no maxillary streaks, . . . . . . olivaceus. 
—maxillary streaks, . .. . . barbatulus. 
eee ets cs se lk se tw wt te br icapilius. 
—not black; spurious quill atleast} as long as 2nd and wing 2ilong, . .... . . . vicinior. 

—not } as long as 2nd, or wing not 2} long (c) 
(c) Wing-bands wanting: coloration asin philadelphicus,. . . 2... 1 1 ee ee ee ee gilvus. 
— present; length over5in.; back olive, contrasting with ashy blue crown, . . . solitarius. 
—plumbeous, crown scarcely different, . . . . plumbeus. 
—545in. or less; wing =tail, both about 2}; Ist quill=432nd., . . . . pusillus. 
—> tail; crown ashy, chin and superc. line white, . . bellii. 
— olive, chin wht., superc. line yell., . novebor. 
—and under parts yell’sh, . huttonii. 


Oss. The Bartramian Vireo of Aup., Orn. Biog. v, 296, pl. 4384, f. 4; 
B. Am. iv, 153, pl. 242, and of Nurr., i, 2d ed. 358, has not been identified -by 
later ornithologists; but there is little chance of its being a good species. The 
descriptions indicate a bird much like V. olivaceus. The original Vireo bartramii of 
Swainson, Fauna Bor.-Am. ii, 235, is a Brazilian species of the olivaceus group, 
wrongly ascribed to North America. The name Vireo virescens that Barrp applied 
to the Bartramian Vireo, in B. N. A. p. 333, is doubtless an erroneous identification, 
as he has since shown, Vre1LLo1’s virescens being based on a Pennsylvania speci- 
men, almost certainly olivacews.— For the discussion of these questions, and 
a masterly review of the whole genus, see Barrp, Review, pp. 322-370. 


Fie.59. Red-eyed Vireo. (This,and subsequent figs. of this family, of nat. size.) 


fted-eyed Vireo. Above, olive-green; crown ash, edged on each side 
with a blackish line, below this a white superciliary line, below this again a 
dusky stripe through eye; under parts white, faintly shaded with olive 
along sides, and tinged with olive on under wing and tail-coverts ; wings 
and tail dusky, edged with olive outside, with whitish inside ; bill dusky, pale 


120 VIREONID®, VIREOS. —GEN. 53. 


below; feet leaden-blue ; eyes red; no dusky maxillary streaks; no spuri- 
ous quill. Large; 52-64; wing 34-34; tail 24-24; bill about 3; tarsus 2. 
Eastern North America; in most places the most abundant species of the 
genus, in woodland ; a voluble, tireless songster. WHLS., ii, 53, pl. 12, f. 3 ; 
Nort.,i, 312; Aup., iv, 155, pl. 243: Bp., 331, and Rev. 833. OLIVACHUS. 

Black-whiskered Vireo. Whip-tom-kelly. Very similar to the last; distin- 
guished by a narrow dusky maxillary line, or line of spots, on each side of 
the chin; bill longer, 3-45; proportions of quills slightly different (see the 
figs.). Cuba, Bahamas, and casually in Florida. V. longirostris, Nurv., 
i, 2d ed., 359. V. altiloguus, GamBreL, Proc. Acad. Phila., 1848, 127; 
Cass., ibid., 1851, 152, and IIl. pp. 8, 221, pl. 87; Bp., 854. V. barbatula, 
Bi, Revevaol. =, 6) ears - « «- ALTILOQUUS Var. BARBATOIUSs 


Fic. 60. Binckewhiskered Vireo. Fic. 61. Vireo flavoviridis. 

Ozs. Another species or variety of this long-billed, 9-primaried group, V. fla- 
voviridis (Cass., Proc. Acad. Phila. 1851, 152: Bp., 332 and Rev. 336), occurs 
in Mexico and may be expected over our border, though no specimens appear to 
have been taken within our limits ; it has been admitted into late systematic works. 
It closely resembles olivaceus, but the under parts are yellow, brighter perhaps, 
at least on the axillars and crissum, than olivaceus ever becomes, even in the fall. 

Brotherly-love Vireo. Above dull olive-green, brightening on the rump, 
fading insensibly into ashy on the crown, 
which is not bordered with blackish; a dull 
white superciliary line; below, palest possible 


A yellowish, whitening on throat and belly, 
slightly olive-shaded on sides; sometimes a 
\ slight creamy or buffy shade throughout the 


ING 162g Reno tit ce Ey Oye Nake: under parts; no obvious wing-bars ; no spuri- 
ous quill. About 5 long; wing 23; tail 24; bill hardly or about 3; tarsus 3. 
Eastern North America; a small, plainly colored species, almost indistin- 
guishable from gilvus except by absence 
of spurious quill; not very common. 
Cass., Proe. Acad. Phila. 1851, 153; 
Bp., 335; Rev. 840. PHILADELPHICUS. 
Warbling Vireo. Colors precisely as 
in the last species ; spurious quill present, aa 
‘4-4 as long as the second primary. F1G. 63. Warbling Vireo. 
Eastern North America, an abundant little bird and an exquisite songster. 
Its voice is not strong, and many birds excel it in brilliancy of execution ; 


VIREONIDZ, VIREOS.—GEN. 53. 121 


but not one of them all can rival the tenderness and softness of the liquid 
strains of this modest vocalist. Not born to “waste its sweetness on the 
desert air,” the warbling vireo forsakes the depths of the woodland for the 
park and orchard and shady street, where it glides through the foliage of 
the tallest trees, the unseen messenger of rest and peace to the busy, dusty 
haunts of men.— Wuts., v, 85, pl. 42, 
ower. 71,309; Auvp., iv, 149, pl. 
241; Bp., 335, and Rev. 342.  iLvus. 

Var. swarxsonn. “Similar to V. gilvus, but 
smaller; colors paler; bill more depressed ; 
upper mandible almost black; 2d quill much 
shorter than 6th.” Barren, Rey. 343; Coop., 
116; Extior, pl. 7. Rocky Mountains to the 
Pacific, U. S. The Western form has been described as distinct, but I scarcely 
think the characters assigned will be found constant. In one of my Arizona skins 
the second quill is Jonger than it is in an Eastern specimen. 


Fic. 64. Western Warbling Vireo. 


Yellow-throated Vireo. Above, rich olive-green, crown the same or even 
brighter, rump insensibly shading into bluish-ash; below, bright yellow, 
belly and ‘crissum abruptly white, sides 


anteriorly shaded with olive, posteriorly 

; with plumbeous; extreme forehead, su- 

A perciliary line and ring round eye, yel- 
low; lores dusky; wings dusky, with 

pa the inner secondaries broadly white- 
edged, and.two broad white bars across 


ee gp om enroated Vireo, tips of greater and median coverts; tail 


dusky, nearly all the feathers completely encircled with white edging; bill 
and feet dark leaden blue; no spurious quill; 53-6; wing about 3; tail only 
about 24. A large, stout, highly-colored species, common in the woods of 
the Eastern United States. Wuts., i, 117, pl. 7, f. 3; Nurr., i, 302; Avup., 
iv, 141, pl. 238; Bp., 341, and Rev. 346. . . . . . +. ¥FLAVIFRONS. 
Blue-headed, or Solitary Vireo. Above, olive-green, crown and sides of 
head bluish-ash in marked contrast, with a broad white line from nostrils to 
and around eye, and a dusky loral line; below, white, flanks washed with 
olivaceous, and axillars and crissum 
pale yellow; wings and tail dusky, 
most of the feathers edged with white 
or whitish, and two conspicuous bars 
of the same across tips of middle and 
greater coverts ; bill and feet blackish 
horn-color. 54 s" 53 ; wing 23 =3 ; tail Fic. 66. Blue-headed, or Solitary Vireo. 
24-24; spurious quill 4-% long, about one-fourth as long as 2d. “United 
States from Atlantic to Pacific, except perhaps Southern Rocky Mountains, 
where replaced by the next species; not rare, but not so common as oliva- 
ceus, flavifrons and noveboracensis; inhabits woodland. WKu1s., ii, 143, pl. 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 16 


122 VIREONIDH, VIREOS.—GEN. 53. 


17, f. 6; Nurr., i, 305; Avup., iv, 144, pl. 239; Bp., 340, and Rev. 347. 
(V. cassiniti Xantus, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1858, 117; Bp., 340, pl. 7ayae ny 
is not different.) . 5... “9, : - » « SOLITARTDEH 
Plumbeous Vireo. Tchtenene soci righiae and more ashy on the 
crown, but without marked contrast, faintly glossed with olive on rump; 
a conspicuous white line from nostril to and around eye, and below this a 
dusky loral stripe; below, pure white, sides of neck and breast shaded with 
: = color of the back, flanks, axillars 
and crissum with a mere trace of 
olivaceous, or none; wing and tail 
dusky, with conspicuous pure white 
edgings and cross-bars. Size of 
the last or rather larger ; bill nearly 
F1G. 67. Plumbeous Vireo. 4; tarsus %; middle toe the same; 
spurious quill about 3, one-third as long as the second quill. Central Plains 
to the Pacific, U. S., and especially Southern Rocky Mountains, where it is 
abundant. A large stout species, a near ally of solitarius, but nearly all 
the olivaceous of that species replaced by plumbeous, and the yellowish by 
white, so that it is a very different looking bird. It may prove only a 
variety, but I have seen no intermediate specimens, and cannot reconcile 
the obvious discrepancies, upon this supposition. Cours, Pr. Ac. Phila., 
1866, 74; Bp., Rev. 349; Coor., 119; Exxior, pl. 7. . « PLUMBEUS. 
Gray Vireo. With the general appearance of a small faded specimen of 
plumbeus: leaden-gray, faintly olivaceous on the rump, below white, with 
hardly a trace of yellowish on the sides; wings and tail hardly edged with 
white; no markings about head except a whitish eye-ring. 52; extent 83; 
wing and tail, each, 24; tarsus nearly 2; middle toe and claw hardly over 4; 
tip of inner claw falling short of base of middle claw; tail decidedly 
rounded; spurious quill ?, half as long as the second primary, which latter 
is not longer than the eighth. Arizona. If these peculiar proportions of the 
single known specimen are constant, the species is distinct from any other. 
It is our plainest colored species, resembling plumbeus, but apparently 
more closely allied to the smaller rounder-winged species like novebora- 
censis and especially pusillus; the toes are almost abnormally short, and 
the tail as long as 


the wing. Cougs, ———— 
Proc. Phila. Acad. 
Sci. 1866; p:7155 


Bp., ‘Kev, -36is 
Coop. 125; ELxiort, 
pl: 7. . VICINIOR. 
White-eyed Vireo. 
Above bright olive- 


green, including crown; a slight ashy gloss on the cervix, and the rump 
showing yellowish when the feathers are disturbed ; below white, the sides 


Fic. 68. White-eyed Vireo. 


VIREONID®, VIREOS.—GEN. 53. 123 


of the breast and belly, the axillars and crissum, bright yellow; a bright 
yellow line from nostrils to and around eye; lores dusky; two broad yel- 
lowish wing-bars ; inner secondaries widely edged with the same; bill and 
feet blackish-plumbeous ; eyes white. About 5 inches long; wing 24-23; 
tail 24; spurious quill ?, half as long as the second, which about equals the 
eighth ; tarsus about ?; middle toe and claw 4; bill nearly $. A small, 
compact, brightly-colored species, abundant in shrubbery and _ tangled 
undergrowth of the Eastern United States; noted for its sprightly manners 
and emphatic voice; eggs 4—5, white, 
speckled at large end. Wizts., ii, 266, pl. 
18; Nurr., i, 306; Aup., iv, 146, pl. 240; 
Bp., 338, and Rev. 354. NOVEBORACENSIS. 
Hutton’s Vireo. A species or variety 
similar to the last, but differing much as 
flavoviridis does from olivaceus, in having 
the under parts almost entirely yellowish; second quill about equal to the 
tenth. Lower California and southward. An accredited species, but one 
I have not tested, and cannot endorse. Cass., Proc. Acad. Phila. 1851, 
Soepeeos; pl. 1, f. 1; Bp., 339, pl. 78, f. 2; Rev. 357. . . HUTTONII. 
Bell’s Vireo. Olive-green, brighter on rump, ashier on head, but without 
decided contrast; head-markings almost exactly as in gilvus; below, sul- 
phury yellowish, only whitish on chin and middle of belly; inner quills 
edged with whitish; two whitish wing-bands, but one more conspicuous 
than the other. Hardly or not 5 


t si long; wing little over 2; tail under 
= zt —————F 2; arentans quill about 2 the second, 
a X which equals or exceeds the seventh. 
( AO A pretty little species, like a mini- 
‘ ature gilvus, but readily distin- 
guished from that species by its 
small size, presence of decided wing-bars, more yellowish under parts, and 
different wing-formula. Middle region, U. S., west to the Rocky Moun- 
tains, east to Kansas (Cowes) and Illinois (Aidgway) ; an abundant species, 
inhabiting copses and shrubbery in open country, with much the same 
sprightly ways and loud song of 


noveboracensis. AUD., vii, 333, pl. “G eee ag 
485; Bo., 337; Rev. 358. BELLII. x 


Least Vireo. Olivaceous-gray, y 

: : ; A Y 
below white, merely tinged with 4 
yellowish on the sides ; head-mark- 5 


ings obscure ; wing-bands and edg- PS ee eee: 

ings, though evident, narrow and whitish; no decided olive or yellow any- 
where. Size of bellii; wing and tail of equal lengths, little over 2 inches ; 
bill 4; tarsus 3; middle toe and claw $; spurious quill about 4 as long as 
the second, which is intermediate between the seventh and eighth. A small 


Fic. 69. Hutton’s Vireo. 


Fic. 70. Bell’s Vireo. 


i 


124 LANIIDA, SHRIKES.—GEN. 53. 


obseure-looking species near bellii, which it replaces in Southwestern U. S; 
possibly a grayer, longer-tailed, geographical race, but more specimens will 
be required to prove this. Its habits are the same as those of Bell’s vireo. 
Cougs, Proc. Acad. Phila., 1866, 76; Bp., Rev. 360; Coop. 124. (V. bellit 
Coop., Proc. Cala. Acad. 1861, 122.). co - . . PUSILLUS. 
Black-headed Vireo. Olive-green, the crown am sides of head black; 
below white, olive-shaded on sides; 4%; wing 24; tail 2. Southwestern 
Texas, extremely rare; only three specimens known. Woopnouss, Proc. 
fC Phila. Acad. 1852, 60; Rep. Expl. Zuii 
River, 75, pl. 1; Cass., Ill., 155. phi2a5 
Bo., 337, and Rev. 353. . ATRICAPILLUS. 


Family LANIID. Shrikes. 


Essentially characterized by the combination 
of comparatively weak, strictly passerine feet 
with a notched, toothed and hooked bill, the 
size, shape and strength of which recalls that of 
a bird of prey. The family comprises about two hundred recorded species, refer- 
able to numerous genera, and divisible into three groups, of which the following is 
the only one occurring in America. 


Fic. 72. Shrikes’ bills. 


Subfamily LANIINA. True Shrikes. 


The genus Collurio is the only representative of this group in North America. 
In this genus the wing has ten primaries and the tail twelve rectrices; both 
are much rounded and of nearly equal lengths. The rictus is furnished with 
strong bristles. The circular nostrils are more or less perfectly covered and con- 
cealed by dense tufts of antrorse bristly feathers. The tarsi are scutellate in front 
and on the outside — in the latter respect deviating from a usual Oscine character. 
Our shrikes will thus be easily distinguished ; additional features are, the point of. 
the wing formed by the 3d, 4th and 5th quills, the 2d not longer than the 6th, 
the 1st about half the 3d; the tarsus equalling or slightly exceeding the middle toe 
and claw; the lateral toes of about equal lengths, their claws reaching the base of 
the middle claw. In coloration our species are much alike, and curiously similar to 
the mockingbird, being bluish-, grayish- or brownish-ash above, white more or less 
evidently vermiculated with black below; wings and tail black variegated with 
white, rump and scapulars more or less whitish, and a black bar through the eye. ~ 

These shrikes are bold and spirited birds, quarrelsome among themselves, and 
tyrannical toward weaker species ; in fact, their nature seems as highly rapacious 
as that of the true birds of prey. They are carnivorous, feeding on insects and 
such small birds and quadrupeds as they can capture and overpower; many in- 
stances have been noted of their dashing attacks upon cage-birds, and their reckless 
pursuit of other species under circumstances that cost them their own lives. But the 
most remarkable fact in the natural history of the shrikes is their singular and 
inexplicable habit of impaling their prey on thorns or sharp twigs, and leaving it 
sticking there. This has occasioned many ingenious surmises, none of which, 
however, are entirely satisfactory. They build a rather rude and bulky nest of 
twigs, and lay 4-6 speckled eggs. They are not strictly migratory, although our 
northernmost species usually retires southward in the fall. The sexes are alike, 


LANIIDE, SHRIKES.—GEN. 54. 125 


and the young differ but little. There are only two well determined American 
species, of nine that compose the genus. 


54. Genus COLLURIO Vigors. 


Great Northern Shrike, or Butcherbird. Clear bluish-ash blanching on 
the rump and scapulars, below white always vermiculated with fine wavy 
blackish lines; a black bar along side of head nof meeting its fellow across 
forehead, interrupted by a white crescent on under eyelid, and bordered 
above by hoary white that also occu- 
pies the extreme forehead; wings 
and tail black, the former with a 
large spot near base of the prima: 
ries, and the tips of most of the 
quills, white, the latter with nearly 
all the feathers broadly tipped with 
white, and with concealed white 
bases; bill and feet black; 9-10 
long; wing 44; tail rather more. The young is similar, but none of the 
colors are so pure or so intense; the entire plumage has a brownish suffu- 
sion, and the bill is flesh colored at base. North America, northerly ; 
breeds, however, in mountainous parts of the United States (Alleghanies, 
Turnbull) ; in winter, usually extends southward about to 35° (Cowes). 
eee. pl. , ft. 1; Norr.; i, 258; Aup., iv, 130, pl. 236; Bp., 324, 
ES in wc ke, se 6 ew ) BOREALIS. 

Loggerhead Shrike. Slate-colored, slightly whitish on the rump and 
secapulars, below white, with a few obscure wavy black lines, or none; black 
bar on side of head meeting its fellow across the forehead, not interrupted 
by white on under eyelid, and scarcely or not bordered above by hoary white ; 
otherwise like borealis in color, but smaller; 8-84; wing about 4; tail rather 
more. Young birds differ much as described under Lorealis, and are decid- 
edly waved below as in that species; but the other characters readily distin- 
guish them. South Atlantic States. Wuts., iii, 57, pl. 22, f.5; Nurr., 
i, 561; Avp., iv, 135, pl. 237; Bp., 325, and Rev. 443. . LUDOVICIANUS. 

Var. Excubirorowes. White-rwmped Shrike. With the size, and the essential 
characters of the head-stripe, of Judovicianus, and the under parts, as in that 
species not, or not obviously, waved, but with the clear light ash upper parts, and 
hoary whitish superciliary line, scapulars and rump of borealis. Middle and West- 
ern N. Am.; N. to the Saskatchewan, E. to Illinois, S. into Mexico. Bp., 327, 
328, and Rey., 344, 345; Coop., 138. 

Oss. Extreme examples of ludovicianus and excubitoroides look very different, 
but they are observed to melt into each other when many specimens are compared, 
so that no specific character can be assigned. To this species I must also refer the 
C. elegans of Baird, considering that the single specimen upon which it was based, 
represents an individual peculiarity in the size of the bill. This specimen is sup- 
posed to be from California, but some of Dr. Gambel’s to which the same locality is 
assigned, were certainly procured elsewhere, and it may not be a North American 


Fic. 73. Butcherbird. 


126 FRINGILLIDA, FINCHES, ETC. 


bird at all. The highest authority on this genus, Messrs. Dresser and Sharpe, have 
shown from examination of Swainson’s type specimen, that his elegans is the 
C. lahtora, a widely- -spread Asiatic species probably erroneously attributed to North 
America, 


Family FRINGILLIDA. Finches, etc. 


The largest North American family, comprising between one-seventh and one- 
eighth of all our birds, and the most extensive group of its grade in ornithology. 
As ordinarily constituted, it represents, in round numbers, five hundred current 
species and one hundred genera, of nearly all parts of the world, except Australia, 
but more particularly of the northern hemisphere and throughout America, where 
the group attains its maximum development. 

Any one United States locality of average attractiveness to birds, has a bird- 
fauna of over two hundred species; and if it be away from the sea-coast, and con- 
sequently uninhabited by marine birds, about one-fourth of its species are Sylvico- 
lide and Fringillide together —the latter somewhat in excess of the former. It is 
not easy, therefore, to give undue prominence to these two families. 

The Fringillide are more particularly what used to be called “‘ conirostral” birds, 
in distinction from “ fissirostres,” as the swallows, swifts and goatsuckers, ‘“ten- 
uirostres,” as humming birds and creepers, and ‘‘ dentirostres,” as warblers, vireos 
and most of the preceding families. The bill approaches nearest the ideal cone, 
combining strength to crush seeds, with delicacy of touch to secure minute objects. 
The cone is sometimes nearly expressed, but is more frequently turgid or conoidal, 
convex in most directions, and sometimes so contracted that some of its outlines 
are concave. The nostrils are usually exposed, but in many, chiefly boreal, 
genera, the base of the bill is furnished with a ruff, or two tufts of antrorse feathers 
more or less completely covering the openings. The cutting edges may be slightly 
notched, but are usually plain; there are usually a few inconspicuous bristles about 
the rictus, sometimes wanting, sometimes highly developed, as in our grosbeaks. 
The wings are endlessly varied in shape, but agree in possessing only nine 
developed primaries; the tail is equally variable in form, but always has twelve 
rectrices. The feet show a strictly Oscine podotheca, scutellate in front, covered 
on the side with an undivided plate, producing a sharp ridge behind. None of 
these members offer extreme phases of development or arrestation, in any of our 
species. 

But the most tangible characteristic of the family is angulation of the commis- 
sure. The commissure runs in a straight line, or with a slight carve, to or near to 
the base of the bill, and is then more or less abruptly bent down at a varying 
angle—the cutting edge of the upper mandible forming a reentrance, that of the 
lower mandible a corresponding salience. In the great majority of cases the fea- 
ture is unmistakable, and in the grosbeaks, for example, it is very strongly marked 
indeed ; but in some of the smaller-billed forms, and especially those with slender 
bill, it is hardly perceptible. On the whole, however, it is a good character, and at 
any rate it is the most reliable external feature that can be found. It separates our 
fringilline birds pretty trenchantly from other Oscines except Jcteride, and most of 
these may be distinguished by the characters given beyond. 

When we come, however, to consider this great group of conirostral Oscines in 
its entirety, as compared with bordering families like the Old World Ploceide, or 
the Icteride, and especially the Tanagride, of the New, the difficulty if not the 
impossibility of framing a perfect diagnosis becomes apparent, and I am not 


FRINGILLIDE, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 55, 56. 127 


aware that a rigid definition has been successfully attempted. Ornithologists are 
nearly agreed what birds to call fringilline, without being very well prepared to say 
what “fringilline” means. The division of the family into minor groups, as might 
be expected, is a conventional matter at present—the subfamilies vary with every 
leading writer. Our species might be thrown into several groups, but the distinc- 
tions would be more or less arbitrary, not readily perceived, and doubtless negatived 
upon consideration of exotic material. It becomes necessary, therefore, to waive 
this matter, and simply collocate the genera in orderly. sequence. 

The Fringillide are popularly known by several different names. Here belong 
all the sparrows, with the allied birds called finches, buntings, linnets, grosbeaks 
and crossbills. In the following pages I describe seventy-one species, well deter- 
mined, and ascertained to occur within our limits, referring them to thirty-four 
genera, as the custom is, although I think this number of genera altogether too large. 
Species occur throughout our country, in every situation, and many of them are among 
our most abundant and familiar birds. They are all granivorous—seed-eaters, but 
many feed extensively on buds, fruits and other soft vegetable substances, as well 
as on insects. They are not so perfectly migratory as the exclusively insectivorous 
birds, the nature of whose food requires prompt removal at the approach of cold 
weather ; but, with some exceptions, they withdraw from their breeding places in 
the fall to spend the winter further south, and to return in the spring. With a few 
signal exceptions they are not truly gregarious birds, though they often associate 
in large companies, assembled in community of interest. The modes of nesting are 
too various to be here summarized. Nearly all the finches sing, with varying 
ability and effect; some of them are among our most delightful vocalists. As a 
rule, they are plainly clad—even meanly, in comparison with some of our sylvan 
beauties ; but among them are birds of elegant and striking colors. Among the 
highly-colored ones, the sexes are more or less unlike, and other changes, with age 
and season, are strongly marked ; the reverse is the case with the rest. 


55. Genus HESPERIPHONA Bonaparte. 


Evening Grosbeak. Dusky olivaceous, brighter behind, forehead, line 
over eye and under tail coverts yellow; crown, wings, tail and tibix black, 
the secondary quills mostly white; bill greenish-yellow, of immense size, 
about # of an inch long and nearly as deep; 74-83; wing 4-43; tail 24. 
The 9 and young differ somewhat, but cannot be mistaken. Plains to the 
Pacific, U. S., and somewhat northward; occasional eastward to Ohio and 
Illinois, and even straying to Canada (McIlwraith) and New York (Law- 
rence). AUD., ili, 217, pl. 207; Bp., 409; Coop., 174. . VESPERTINA. 


56. Genus PINICOLA Vieillot. 


Pine Grosbeak. % carmine red, paler or whitish on the belly, darker 
and streaked with dusky on the back; wings and tail dusky, much edged 
with white, former with two white bars; 9 ashy-gray, paler below, marked 
with brownish-yellow on the head andrump. 8-9 long; wing 4$; tail 4, 
emarginate ; bill short, stout, convex in all directions. Northern North 
America, appearing in the United States in winter, generally in flocks, in 
pine woods ; resident in the Sierra Nevada of California (Cooper). W11s., i, 
80, pl. 5; Aup., iii, 179, pl. 199; Bp., 410; Coop., 152. . ENUCLEATOR. 


128 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 57, 58. 


57. Genus PYRRHULA Auctorum. 


Cassin’s Bullfinch. § above clear ashy gray, below cinnamon gray, 
rump and under wing and tail coverts white ; wings and tail, crown, chin and 
face black; outer tail feathers with a white patch, greater wing covyerts 
tipped and primaries edged with whitish : bill black, feet dusky ; 9 unknown. 
Length 63; wing 34; tail 34. Nulato, Alaska (Dall), only one specimen 
known, originally described as a va- 
riety of P. coccinea of Europe, but 
later determined to be distinct. Bp., 
Trans. Chicago Acad. 1869, 316, pl. 
29, f.1; Newrvon, Ibis, 1870j0257 5 
TristRAM, Ibis, 1871, 231. CASsINII. 


58. Genus CARPODACUS Kaup. 


* Adult ¢ with the red diffuse, belly 
unstreaked, and edging of wings reddish. 


Purple Finch.  & crimson, rosy, 
or purplish-red, most intense on the 
crown, fading to white on the belly, mixed with dusky streaks on the back ; 
wings and tail dusky, with reddish edgings, and the wing coverts tipped with 
‘the same; lores and feathers all around base of bill hoary. g and 
young with no red—olivaceous-brown, brighter on the rump, the feathers 
above all with paler edges, producing a streaked appearance; below white, 
thickly spotted and streaked with olive-brown, except on middle of belly and 
under tail coverts; obscure whitish superciliary and maxillary lines. 
Young males show every gradation between these extremes, in gradually 
assuming the red plumage, and are frequently brownish-yellow or bronzy 
below. 53-64; wing 3-34 ; tail 24-23, forked ; tarsus 3; middle toe and claw 
g; bill under $, turgid, with a little ruff of antrorse 
feathers. Not crested, but the coronal feathers erec- 
tile. The foregoing description should prevent con- @ 
founding young birds with any of the streaked and 
spotted sparrows. United States from Atlantic to 
Pacitic, and somewhat northward in summer; an 
abundant species, particularly in spring and fall, in 
woods and orchards, generally found in flocks except when breeding; feeds 
on seeds, buds and blossoms; a delightful songster. Wuus., i, 119, pl. 7, 
f. 4; Aup., iii, 170, pl. 196; Bp., 412; also, C. californicus Bp., 413; 
Coopr., 154, which I cannot distinguish at all. . . . . . PURPUREUS. 
Cassin’s Purple Finch. Similar; the red paler, more streaked with 
dusky on the upper parts, crown rich crimson in marked contrast; larger ; 
64-7; wing 34; tail 22; bill about 3, comparatively less turgid; tarsus %. 
Southern Rocky Mountain Region. Bp., 414; Cours, Pr. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Phila. 1766,.453 .Coops, 155.0". & = 9ie 2 Se ee ee 


Fic. 74. Cassin’s Bullfinch. 


Fic. 75. Billof Purple Finch. 


FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 59. 129 


** Adult ¢ with the red partly in definite areas, the belly streaked, the edging 
of the wings whitish. 

Crimson-fronted Finch. House Finch. Burion. & with the forehead 
and a line over the eye, the rump, and the chin, throat and breast, crimson ; 
other upper parts brown, streaked with darker, and marked with dull red, 
and other under parts white or whitish, streaked with dusky ; wings and tail 
dusky with slight whitish edgings and cross bars. The changes of plumage 
are parallel with those of C. purpureus, but the species may easily be dis- 
tinguished in any plumage by its smaller size, with relatively longer wings 
and tail, these members being absolutely as long or nearly as long as in 
purpureus; the tail barely or not forked; and especially by the much shorter 
and more inflated bill, which is almost exactly as represented in the fore- 
going figure of Pyrrhula cassinii. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U. S., 
a very abundant species in the towns and gardens of New Mexico, Arizona 
and California, where it is as familiar as the European Sparrow has become 
in many of our large eastern cities ; nests about the houses ; a pleasant song- 
ee. mi, tla, pl. 197; Bp., 415; Coor., 156. . . . FRONTALIS. 


59. Genus CURVIROSTRA Scopoli. 


* .* Distinguished from all other birds by the falcate mandibles With crossed 
points. Nasal ruff conspicuous; wings long, pointed; tail short, forked; feet 
strong. Sexes dissimilar; ¢ some shade of red, nearly uniform, with dusky wings 
and tail; @ brownish or olivaceous, more or less streaked, head and rump 
frequently washed with brownish-yellow ; young like the 9. Irregularly migratory, 
according to exigencies of the weath- 
er, eminently gregarious, and feed 
principally on pine seeds, which they 
skilfully husk out of the cones with 
their singular bill. Our two species 
inhabit the northern parts of Amer- 
ica, coming southward in flocks in 
the fall; but they are also resident in 
northern and mountainous pine-clad 
parts of the United States, where 
they sometimes breed in winter. 

White-winged Crossbill. Wings 
in both sexes with two conspicu- 
ous white bars; ¢ rosy red, 9? 
brownish-olive, streaked and speckled with dusky, the rump saffron; about 
6; wing 33; tail 24. Wus. iv, 48, pl. 31, f.3; Avp., iii, 190, pl. 201; 
_ os . . LEUCOPTERA. 

Red Crossbill. Uo ommon " Crossbill hconrice TL; es 13, 14, 15, 13a, 
14a, 15a.) Wings blackish, unmarked; ¢ bricky a 2 as in leucoptera, 
but wings plain. Wuts., iv, 44, pl. 31, f. 1,2; Avp., iii, 186, pl. 200; 
ERNE EAR) kh ac al wl ne eh Me co AMERICANA, 


Var. mexicana. Similar to the last; bill large, about 3 of an inch long. Moun- 


FG. 76. White-winged Crossbill. 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 17 


130 FRINGILLIDEH, FINCHES, ETC. —GEN. 60, 61. 


tainous parts of New Mexico, and southward. Bp., 427 (in text), 924. My New 
Mexican specimens show a bill almost matching that of C. pytiopsittacus of Europe. 


60. Genus LEUCOSTICTE Swainson. 


*,* Sides of the under mandible with a small sharp oblique ridge; nasal tufts 
conspicuous. 

Gray-crowned Finch. Chocolate or liver-brown, the feathers posteriorly 
skirted with rosy or lavender, wings and tail dusky, rosy-edged, chin dusky 
with little or no ashy, crown alone clear ash, forehead alone black, bill and 
nasal feathers whitish, feet black; 9 not particularly different; about 7; 
wing 44; tail 22; a little forked. In midsummer, the black frontlet extends 
over the crown, the rosy heightens to crimson, and the bill blackens; the 
whole plumage is likewise darker. Rocky Mountain region, south to Colo- 
rado. AUD., ili, 176, pl. 198; Bp., 4830; Coop., 164. . TEraROogo iE: 


Var. campestris Bp., in Coop., 163. Colorado. In the specimen described, the 
ash of the head extends a little below the eyes but not on the auriculars, and forms 
a narrow border on the chin; thus approximating to the 
next. 

Var. GriseInucHaA. Gray-eared Finch. The ash of the 
lead extending over the whole cheeks and ears and 
part of the chin; the black frontlet extending over most 
of the crown. Larger than average tephrocotis. Aleutian 
Islands. Bp., 430 (footnote); Trans. Chicago Acad. 
Fic. 77. Gray-eared Finch (3). 1869, pl. 28, f. 2; Coor., 161. 

Var. LiTrorALts Bp., Trans. Chicago Acad. 1869, p. 317, pl. 28, f. 1; Coopr., 163. 
In the specimens described, from Sitka and British Columbia, the whole head 
including the chin, except the black frontlet, is ashy. The gradations noted in the 
foregoing paragraphs show that there is but a single species, although griseinucha 
and littoralis look quite different from tephrocotis and campestris. 

Siberian Finch. Dusky purplish; neck above pale yellowish; forehead 
and nasal feathers blackish; outer webs of quills and wing coverts, tail 
coverts, rump and crissum silvery gray, rosy-margined. Kurile and Aleu- 
tian Islands; Siberia. Bp., 430 (footnote); Coopr., 165. . . ARoToa. 


61. Genus AEGIOTHUS Cabanis. 


* .* Small species (51-52; wing 23-3; tail 2}-21), with the bill extremely acute, 
overlaid at the base with nasal plumules, the wings long, pointed, the tail short, 
forked, the feet moderate. Conspicuously streaked, the crown with a crimson patch 
in both sexes, the face and chin dusky, wings and tail dusky with whitish edgings ; 
the males with the whole breast rosy and the rump tinged with the same. Boreal 
birds, occurring in the United States in winter, in large flocks. 

fed-poll Linnet. (PuatE 11, figs. 1, la, 2, 2a, 4, 4a, 5, 5a.) Upper parts 
streaked with dusky and flaxen in about equal amounts, rump white or rosy, 
always streaked with dusky; below, streaked on the sides, the belly dull 
white; bill mostly yellow; feet blackish; middle toe and claw as long 
as the tarsus. WULs., iv, pl. 42; Nurr.,i,512; Aup., ili, 122; Bp., 428; 
Cougs; Proc. Phila. Acad..1861, 373. 9 3...) seu =e en ee 


FRINGILLIDH, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 61, 62. 131 


Var. ruscescens. Dusky Redpoll. (Pare 11, figs. 3, 3a.) Upper parts nearly 
uniform dusky, rump scarcely lighter, sides heavily streaked; bill dusky. Avp., 
iii, pl. 179? Coues, Proc. Phila. Acad., 1861, 222, 390; 1869, 186; Exxror, pl. 10. 
I am not sure that this is anything more than a state of plumage of linarius, as the 
dusky appearance may be due to wearing away of the lighter edges of the feathers. 

Var. exttipes. American Mealy Redpoll. (Piare 11, figs. 6, 6a.) Colors pale, 
the flaxen of Jinarius bleaching to whitish ; rump white or rosy, entirely unstreaked 
in the adults; breast pale rosy, and streaks on the sides small and sparse; bill 
very small, with heavy plumules ; feet small, the middle toe and claw hardly or not 
equal to the tarsus. Avp., iii, 120, pl. 178; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad., 1861, 385, 
1869, 187; Extror, pl. 9. An Arctic race, not difficult to recognize, representing 
in America the true Mealy Redpoll, A. canescens, of Greenland. 

Oss. In addition to the foregoing, a large variety with a very large yellow bill, 
apparently corresponding to what is called holbelli in Europe, has been noted from 
Canada. Covss, Proc., Phila. Acad., 1862, 40; 1869, 184. 


‘ 


6lbis. Genus LINOTA Bonaparte. 

Brewster's Linnet. With the general appearance of an immature Aegio- 
thus, this bird will be recognized by absence of any crimson on the crown, a 
peculiar yellowish shade on the lower back, and somewhat different propor- 
tions. Massachusetts, one specimen (Srewster). Aegiothus fluvirostris, 
var. brewsterii Rripaway, Am. Nat. vi, July, 1872. An interesting dis- 
covery, of which I learn as these pages go to press; may be same as the 
- European. (Notinthe Key.) . . . ¥FLAVIROSTRIS var. BREWSTERII. 


62. Genus CHRYSOMITRIS Boie. 

*Sexes alike. Jill extremely acute; nasal plumules sometimes deficient. 
Everywhere thickly streaked ; no definite black on head ; no red anywhere. 

Pine Linnet. (Pate in, figs. 11, lla, 12,12a.) Continuously streaked 
above with dusky and olivaceous brown or flaxen, below with dusky and 
whitish, the whole plumage in the breeding season more or less suffused 
with yellowish, particularly bright on the rump; the bases of the quills and 
tail feathers extensively sulphury yellow, and all these feathers more or 
less edged externally with yellowish. 42; wing 22; tail 1?; forked. The 
plumage is extremely variable; young birds frequently show a buffy or 
flaxen suffusion, and resemble a redpoll; but the yellowish coloration of 
the wings and tail is peculiar, and distinctive of the species. North Amer- 
ica, breeding northerly, ranging throughout most of the United States, in 
flocks, in the winter; abundant. WKHxs., ii, 133, pl. 17, f.1; Nurt., i, 511; 
ametiico, pl. 150; Bp., 425; Coor.,172. . . . . . . PINUS. 

* * Sexes unlike. Bill moderately acute. Not noticeably streaked. The adult 
males with definite black on the crown, wings and tail. 

American Goldfinch. Yellowbird. Thistlebird. (PLATE 1m, figs. 7, 8, 
9, 10, 7a, 8a, 9a, 10a.) gf in summer, rich yellow, changing to whitish 
on the tail coverts; a black patch on the crown; wings black, more or less 
edged and barred with white; lesser wing coverts yellow; tail black, every 
feather with a white spot; bill and feet flesh-colored. In September, the 


132 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 62. 


black cap disappears, and the general plumage changes to a pale flaxen 
brown above, and whitey-brown below, with traces of the yellow, 
especially about the head: this continues until the following April or 
May.  @ olivaceous, including the crown; below soiled yellowish, wings 
and tail dusky, whitish-edged : young like the 9g. About 43? long ; wing 23; 
tail 2, a little forked; 9 rather smaller than the g¢. North America, 
especially the Eastern United States; an abundant and familiar species, 
conspicuous by its bright colors, and plaintive lisping notes; in the fall, 
collects in large flocks, and so remains until the breeding season ; irregularly 
migratory ; feeds especially on the seeds of the thistle and buttonwood ; flies 
in an undulating course. Nest small, compact, built of downy and very soft 
pliant substances, with stueco-work of lichens, placed in a crotch; eggs 4-5, 
white, speckled. Wits., i, 20, pl. 1, f. 2; Nurr., i, 507; Aupiy ime, 
pl. 181; Bo., 420. 2. 

Lawrences Goldfinch. & gray, whitening on the belly and crissum: 
rump, a large breast patch, and often’ 
much of the back, rich yellow; crown, 
face and chin black; wings black, 
variegated with yellow, most of the 
coverts being of this color, and the same 
broadly edging the quills; tail black, 
most of the feathers with large square 
white spots on the inner web; bill and 
feet dark. The 9 resembles the male, 
but there is no black on the head, and the 
yellow places are not so bright. Size of 
tristis, or rather less; an elegant species. 
California, Arizona, and probably New Mexico. Bp., 424; Exuiot, pl. 8; 
Coops WIT a ee et ne ee ie ree la 

Arkansas Goldfinch. @ olive-green, below yellow; crown black, this 
not extending below eyes; wings 
black, most of the quills and the 
greater coverts white-tipped, and the 
primaries white at base; tail black, 
the outermost three pairs of feathers 
with a long rectangular white spot on 
the inner web. @ and young similar, 
but not so bright, and no black on the 
head; sometimes, also, no decided 
white spots on the tail. 44-44; wing 


Fig. 78. Lawrence’s Goldfinch. 


Fic. 79. Arkansas Goldfinch. 


94; tail 2. Plains to the Pacific, (Arizona variety.) 
U. S., rather southerly. Aup., iii, 134, pl. 183; Nurr., i, 510; Bo., 422; 
CoGes: 168 5 <5 kaa econ pie aw sen eo el ae 2S 


Var. ARIzoN® Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad., 1866, p. 46; Coor., 170. The upper 
parts mixed olive and black in about equal amounts, thus leading directly into 


FRINGILLID®, FINCHES, ETC. —GEN. 63. 133 


Var. MEXICANA, with the upper parts continuously black, and the black of the 
crown éxtending below the eyes, enclosing the olive under eye-lid. Mexican 
border and southward. Bp., 423; Coor., 
169. This bird looks quite unlike typical 
psaltria, but the gradation through var. 
arizone is perfect; and mexicana, more- 
over, leads directly into var. columbiana, a 
Central American form in which the tail- 
spots are very small or wanting. The 
females of these several varieties cannot be 
distinguished with certainty. 

Oss. Chrysomitris magellanica, a South 
American species with the whole head black, 
is said by Audubon to have been taken in 
Kentucky, where probably it will not be found again. Chrysomitris stanleyi and 
C. yarrellii, of Audubon, were apparently cage-birds, improperly attributed to 
North America. 


Fic. 80. Mexican Goldfinch. 


63. Genus PLECTROPHANES Meyer. 
* Bill small, truly conic, ruffed at base; hind claw decidedly curved. 


Snow Bunting. Snowflake. In breeding plumage, pure white, the back, 
Wings and tail variegated with black ; bill and feet black. As generally seen 
in the United States, the white is clouded with clear, warm brown, and the 
bill is brownish. Length about 7; wing 44; tail 2%. Arctic America, 
irregularly southward, in flocks, in the winter, to about 85°; but its move- 
ments depend much on the weather. WILS., iii, 
86, pl. 21; Norr., i, 458; Avwp., ili, 55, pl. 155; 
eee eeee ss. sw te ) CNTV ALIS: 

* * Bill moderate, unruffed, but with a little tuft of 
feathers at the base of the rictus ; hind claw straight- 
ish, with its digit longer than the middle toe and claw. 
Sexes dissimilar; ¢ with a cervical collar, and oblique white area on the outer tail 
feathers; 9 resembling some of the streaked sparrows. (Centrophanes.) 


Fic. 81. Foot in Centrophanes. 


Lapland Longspur. Adult g : whole head and throat jet black bordered 
with buffy or whitish which forms a postocular line separating the black of 
the crown from that of the sides of the head; a broad chestnut cervical 
collar; upper parts in general blackish streaked with buffy or whitish that 
edges all the feathers; below, whitish, the breast and sides black-streaked ; 
wings dusky, the greater coverts and inner secondaries edged with dull bay ; 
tail dusky with white areas as above mentioned; Dill yellowish tipped with 
black, legs and feet black. 6-64; wing 34-34; tail 2-23. Winter males 
show less black on the head, and the cervical chestnut duller; the 9? and 
young havemo continuous black on the head, and the crown is streaked like 
the back; but there are traces of the cervical collar, whilst the generic char- 
acters will prevent confusion with any of the ordinary streaked sparrows. 
Arctic America, irregularly southward into the United States in winter, fre- 


134 FRINGILLIDA, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 63. 


quently in company with nivalis, but not so common. Nutt., i, 463; 
Aiup., tit; 50, pl. 152; Baw, tea, ey _. LAPPONICUS. 

Painted Lark Bunting. Adult g : cervical collar and entire under parts 
rich buffy brown or dark fawn; crown and sides of head black, bounded 
below by a white line, and interrupted by white superciliary and auricular 
line and white occipital spot; upper parts streaked with black and brownish 
yellow; lesser and middle wing coverts black, tipped with white forming 


conspicuous patches; one or two outer tail feathers mostly white; no white 


on the rest; legs pale. Size of lapponicus: seasonal and sexual changes of 
plumage correspondent. British America into United States in the interior ; 
not common with us. Nutt., ii, 589; Aup., iii, 52, pl. 15385 vii,eda7, 
pl. 487 (smithii) ; Bp., 484. ot Sa . PIOTUS. 

Chestnut-collared Lark Bunting., Adult g¢: a chestnut cervical collar, 
as in lapponicus, and upper parts streaked much as in that species, but 
grayer; nearly all the under parts continuously black, the throat yellowish ; 
lower belly and crissum only whitish; in high plumage the black of the 
under parts is more or less mixed with intense ferrugineous, and sometimes 
this rich sienna color becomes continuous; crown and sides of head black, 
interrupted with white auricular and postocular stripes, and in high plumage 
with a white occipital spot; lesser wing coverts black or brownish-black ; 
outer tai] feathers mostly or entirely white, and all the rest largely white 
from the base —a character that distinguishes the species in any plumage 
from the two preceding; legs not black; @ with or without traces of the 
cervical collar; crown exactly like the back, generally no black on head or 
under parts; below whitish, with slight dusky maxillary and pectoral streaks 
and sometimes the whole breast black, edged with grayish. Immature males 


have the lesser wing coverts like the back; but they show the black of the 


breast, veiled with gray tips of the feathers, long before any black appears 
on the head. Size less than in the foregoing. 54-6; wing 3-34; tail 2-24. 
Missouri Region, Kansas, and westward; 8. to the Table-lands of Mexico. 
Aub., iii, 53, pl. 154; Nurvr., 2d ed. 1, 539; Bp., 435. P. melanomus 
Bp., 436, appears to be merely a high plumage, perhaps not always assumed 
by northerly birds., .. 2.0. 0. 0s. 0 

** * Bill large, turgid, unruffed ; hind claw as before, but shorter; sexes dissim- 
ilar; no cervical collar; outer tail feathers white, the rest, except the middle pair, 
white on the inner webs to near the tip, the line of demarcation running straight 
across. (Rhynchophanes.) 


Maccown’s Bunting. Adult g: crown anda broad pectoral crescent 
black; superciliary line and under parts white; bend of wing chestnut ; 
above, streaked with blackish and yellowish-brown. Size of the last, or 
rather larger ; 6-63; wing 32; tail 24-24; bill nearly $ inch long. The@ 
lacks the black and chestnut, but in any plumage the species may be known 
by the peculiar markings of the tail feathers, the white areas being cut 
squarely off, except in the outer pair, which are wholly white. Plains to the 
Rocky Mountains, U. S., rather northern; breeds abundantly about Chey- 


ts 


FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 64, 65. ites 


enne, Wyoming. (Allen.) Lawr., Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y., 1851, v, 
eens 8, 225, pl. 39; Bp., 437. . . . . « - + MACCOWNIL. 


64. Genus CENTRONYX Baird. 

Baird’s Bunting. Hind claw rather longer tian its digit; hind toe and 
claw not shorter than the middle one. Wings pointed, but inner secondaries 
not lengthened as in Passerculus. Tail emarginate. Thickly streaked 
everywhere above, on the sides, and across the breast ; above, grayish streaked 
with dusky, below white, with blackish maxillary, pectoral and lateral 
streaks; crown divided by a brownish-yellow line; a faint superciliary whit- 
ish line; no yellowish on bend of wing; outer tail feathers whitish. A curi- 
ous bird, apparently related to Plectrophanes in form, but with the general 
appearance of a savanna sparrow or bay-winged bunting. Only one speci- 
men known. Yellowstone, Aup., vii, 359, pl. 500; Bp., 441. “ Massa- 
chusetts,” Maynarp, Am. Nat., 1869, 554, and Guide, 112, frontispiece ; 
Aten, Am. Nat. 1869, 631; Brewster, Am. Nat. 1872, 307. I have 
seen the later supposed specimens, the fresh measurements of one of which 
(6%; wing 34; tail 23; bill .4;- tarsus nearly an inch) are much larger than 
those recorded by Audubon, and there are many other discrepancies. The 
bird should be diligently sought for, as a full investigation will reveal some- 
ueuMMrCaMICIpated. 95 2 | fet. CC SC)SCBAIRDII. 


65. Genus PASSERCULUS Bonaparte. 


Savanna Sparrow. (Puate m1, figs. 16,17, 18, 16a, 17a, 18a.) Thickly 
streaked everywhere above, on sides, and across breast; a superciliary line, 
and edge of the wing, yellowish; lesser wing coverts not chestnut; legs 
flesh-color; bill rather slender and acute; tail 
nearly even, its outer feathers not pure white; 
longest secondary nearly as long as the primaries 
in the closed wing. Above, brownish-gray, 
streaked with blackish, whitish-gray and pale bay, 
the streaks largest on interscapulars, smallest on 
cervix, the crown divided by an-obscure whitish 


. ; . aS Fic. 82. Savanna Sparrow. 
line; sometimes an obscure yellowish suffusion (Bill too slender.) 


about head besides the streak over the eye. Below, white, pure or 


with faint buffy shade, thickly streaked, as just stated, with dusky — the 
individual spots edged with brown, mostly arrow-shaped, running in chains 
along the sides, and often aggregated in an obscure blotch on the breast. 
Wings dusky, the coverts and inner secondaries black-edged and tipped with 
bright bay; tail feathers rather narrow and pointed, dusky, not noticeably 
marked. 54-52; wing 24-22; tail 2-2}; middle toe and claw together 14; 
bill under $. North America; a terrestrial species, abundant every where 
in fields, on plains, by waysides, and along the seashore; migratory, grega- 
rious. With a close general resemblance to several other species, it may be 
readily distinguished by the foregoing marks. It varies but little with sex 


136 ; FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.- GEN. 66. 


and age, though the colors may be darker. and sharper, or brighter and more 
diffuse, according to season and wear of the feathers. “Wuts., iii, 55, pl. 22, 
f.1; Nurr., i, 489; Avup., iii, 68, pl. 160; Bpo., 442. P. alaudinus Bo., 
446; Coop., 181, is indistinguishable. . . . . . . « « SAvaNineED 

Var. AnrHinus Bo., 445; Coop., 183; Etz., pl. 13, may be recognized. Bill 
longer, slenderer (as in fig. 82); spots below very numerous, close, sharp, dark. 
California coast, abundant in the salt marshes. 

Var. SANDVICENSIS Bp., 444; Coop., 180. A large northern race: 6 or more 
long; bill 4, stout ; head more yellowish. Northwest coast. 

Sea-shore Sparrow. With the form of a savanna sparrow, but the bill 
elongated as in Ammodromus, yet very stout and turgid, with decidedly 
convex culmen, 4 an inch long. No evident yellowish over eye or on edge of 
wing; no evident median stripe on crown. Brown- 
ish-gray, back and crown streaked with dusky, 
below dull white, confluently streaked with brown 
everywhere except on belly and crissum. Wings 
and tail dusky gray, the rectrices with paler edges, 
the primaries with whitish edges, the wing coverts 
and secondaries broadly edged and tipped with 
grayish-bay ; an obscure whitish superciliary line; under mandible yellow- 
ish, legs pale; 54; wing 23; tail 2. Pacific coast, U. S.; a curious species, 
common, maritime, representing, with var. anthinus, the Ammodromi in the 
marshes of the seashore. Cass., IIl., 226, pl. 28; Bp., 446; Cours, Ibis, 
1866, 268. Coor., 184... 4. be Oe ee 

St. Lucas Sparrow. Similar to rostratus; same size; bill not so heavy: 
“A stripe of pale yellow runs from the bill to the eye, a longer stripe of pale 
yellow extends from the under mandible down the side of the throat * * * 
differs from all its allies in the obscure grayish coloring of the upper parts, 
with no reddish-brown, and in having its under plumage more closely and 
fully spotted.” San José, L. California; a variety of the last? Lawr., 
Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y. 1867, 473; Coor., 185. .« .. . “é;ameeammes 


Fic. 88. Sea-shore Sparrow. 


66. Genus POOECETES Baird. 

Bay-winged Bunting. Grass Finch. Thickly streaked everywhere above, 
on sides and across breast; no yellow anywhere; lesser wing coverts ches¢- 
nut and 1-3 pairs of outer tail feathers partly or wholly white. Above 
grayish-brown, the streaking dusky and brown, with grayish-white; below 
white, usually noticeably buffy-tinged, the streaks very numerous on the 
fore parts and sides; wing coverts and inner quills much edged and tipped 
with bay ; crown like back, without median stripe, line over, and ring round, 
eye, whitish; feet pale; 53-6}; wing. 2§-34, with inner secondaries 
lengthened; tail 24-22. North America; arather large, stout species, 
known on sight by combination of chestnut lesser wing coverts and white 
outer tail feathers; the sexes are alike, and the variations in color are only 
such as are indicated under P. savanna; western specimens average paler 
and grayer, representing var. confinis Bp., 448. A very abundant bird, 


PLATE V. 


: CAW se} 
ee eS eee ee Ee 


ye Egothus linarus, 7-10, Ghrysomitris trists, 1-12. C pimus 13-15, Curvirostra 
__—s atmerieana; 1618, Passerculus savanna. 


4, : $ 


FRINGILLID®, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 67, 68. 137 


in fields, etc., terrestrial, migratory, gregarious in the fall. Wus., iv, 51, 
pl. 31, f. 5; Nurr., i, 482; Aup., iii, 65, pl. 159; Bp., 447. GraMINEUS. 


67. Genus COTURNICULUS Bonaparte. 


Yellow-winged Sparrow. Edge of wing conspicuously yellow; lesser 
wing coverts, and short line over eye, yellowish; below, not or not evidently 
streaked, but fore parts and sides, buff, fading to dull white on the belly. 
Aboye, singularly variegated with black, gray, yellowish-brown and a 
peculiar purplish-bay in short streaks and specks, the crown being nearly 
black with a sharp median brownish-yellow line, the middle of the back 
chiefly black with bay and brownish-yellow edgings of the feathers, the cer- 
vieal region and rump chiefly gray mixed with bay ; wing coverts and inner 
quills variegated like the back; feet pale. Small; only 4§-54 long; wing 
24, much rounded ; tail 2 or less, with very narrow pointed feathers, the out- 
stretched feet reaching to or beyond its end; bill short, turgid. Sexes alike ; 
young similar, not so buffy below, and with pectoral and maxillary dusky 
spots; but in any plumage known from other sparrows (except the next 
species) by amount of yellow on wings, and peculiar proportions of parts. 
United States ; abundant in tall grass and weeds of plains and fields ; strictly 
terrestrial, migratory, with a peculiar chirring note, |‘ .e a grasshopper’s ; 
nests on the ground, eggs 4—5, white, speckled. Specimens from dry 
western regions are paler and grayer (var. perpallidus Ripaway, Mss.). 
Wvres.s tt, 16, pl. 26, f.5; Avp., iii, 73, pl. 162; Nurr., i, 494; Bp., 450; 
oe eo Ce whe) «6 PASSERINUS. 

Henslow’s Sparrow. Resembling the last; smaller; more yellowish 
aboye, and with sharp maxillary, pectoral and lateral black streaks below; 
tail longer, reaching beyond feet; bill stout. Eastern U. 8., not very com- 
mon. AUD., iii, 75, pl. 163; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 571; Bp., 451. HENSLOWII. 

Leconte’s Sparrow. Like the last; bill much smaller; fore and under 
parts and sides of head buff, with black touches on sides; no yellow loral 
spot; median crown-stripe buff, white posteriorly ; 44; wing 24; tail 1%. 
Missouri region; Texas. A long-lost species, rediscovered in No. 50, 222, 
Mus. 8. 1. (Lincecum.) Avp., vii, 338 pl. 488; Bp., 452. . LEconreEr. 


68. Genus AMMODXOMUS Swainson. 

*,* Small streaked sparrows, remarkable for the slender lengthened form of the 
bill, and the narrow, acute tail feathers. Wing short, much rounded, its edge 
yellow ; tail short ; feet very large, reaching nearly to end of tail. Confined to salt- 
marshes of the Atlantic and Gulf States; abundant, migratory. 

Sea-side Finch. Olive-gray, obscurely streaked on the back and crown with 
darker and paler; below, whitish, often washed with brownish, and shaded 
on the sides with the color of the back, with ill-defined streaks on the breast 
and sides; wings and tail plain dusky, with slight olivaceous edgings, wing 
coverts and inner quills somewhat margined with brown; a yellow spot over 
eye, and often some vague brownish and dusky markings on side of head ; 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 18 


138 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 69. 


bill plumbeous, feet dark; 53-64; wing 24-24; tail about 2. Whuuzs., iv, 
68, pl. 34, f. 2; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 592, 593; Auvp., ili, 103, 106, pl. 172, 
173 (macgillivrayi):s Bp.; 204. 2s ee a eee MARITIMUS. 

Sharp-tailed Finch. Olive-gray, sharply streaked on the back with 
blackish and whitish; crown 
darker than nape, with brown- 
ish-black streaks and obscure 
median line; no yellow loral 
“spot, but long line over eye and 
sides of head rich buff or orange- 
brown enclosing olive-gray 
auriculars and a dark speck 
behind these ; below, white, the 
fore parts and sides tinged with 
yellowish brown or buff of vari- 
able intensity, the breast and 
sides sharply streaked with 
dusky. Rather smaller than the 

Fic. 84. Details of structure in Sharp-tailed Finch. last ; bill still slenderer, and 
tail feathers still narrower and more acute. WILS., iv, 70, pl. 34, f. 3; 
Nutt., i, 504; Avp., iii, 108, pl. 174; Bp., 453.  . . . CAUDACUTUS: 


69. Genus MELOSPIZA Baird. 


*Breast streaked, and with a transverse belt of brownish-yellow; tail nearly 
equal to wings. 

Lincoln’s Finch. Below, white, breast banded and sides often shaded 
with yellowish, everywhere except on the belly thickly and sharply streaked 
with dusky ; above grayish-brown, crown and back with blackish, brownish 
and paler streaks; tail grayish-brown, the feathers usually showing blackish 
shaft lines; wings the same, the coverts and inner quills blackish with bay 
and whitish edgings ; no yellow on wings or head; 54; wing and tail about 
24. North America; not common in the Eastern States. AvpD., iii, 116, 
pl. 177; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 569; Bp., 482; Coopr., 216. . . LINCGEAEE 

** Breast ashy, unbelted, with few streaks, or none; tail about equal to wings. 

Swamp Sparrow. Crown bright bay, or chestnut, blackening on the fore- 
head, often with obscure median ashy line, and usually streaked with black ; 
cervix, entire sides of head and neck, and the breast, strongly ashy, with 


vague dark auricular and maxillary markings, the latter bounding the whitish - 


chin, the ashy of the breast obsoletely streaky ; belly whitish ; sides, flanks and 
crissum strongly shaded with brown, and faintly streaked; back and rump 
brown, rather darker than the sides, boldly streaked with black and pale 
brown or grayish. Wings so strongly edged with bright bay as to appear 
almost uniformly of this color when viewed closed, but inner secondaries 
showing black with whitish edging; tail likewise strongly edged with bay, 


FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 69. 139 


and usually showing sharp black shaft lines. No yellowish anywhere; no 
tail feathers white; further distinguished from its allies by the emphasis of 
its black, bay and ash; 53-6; wing and tail 24-24. Eastern North America ; 
a common inhabitant of low thickets, swamps and marshes. WILS., iii, 49, 
pl. 22, f. 1; Aup., iii, 110, pl. 175; Nurr., i, 502; Bp., 483. PaLusrris. 

*** Breast white, with numerous streaks aggregated into a central blotch; _ tail 
obviously longer than the wings, both rounded. Thickly streaked everywhere 
above, on sides and across breast. No yellowish anywhere. 

Song Sparrow. Below, white, slightly shaded with brownish on the 
flanks and crissum, the numerous streaks just mentioned being dusky with 
brown edges, forming a pectoral blotch and also usually coalescing into 
maxillary stripes bounding the white throat; crown dull bay, with fine black 
streaks, divided and bounded on either side by ashy-whitish lines; vague 
brown or dusky and whitish markings on the sides of the head; _ the inter- 
scapular streaks black, with bay and ashy-white edgings; rump and cervix 
grayish-brown, with merely a few bay marks; wings with dull bay edgings, 
the coverts and inner quills marked like the interscapulars ; tail plain brown, 
with darker shaft lines, on the middle feathers at least, and often with obso- 
lete wavy markings. Very constant in plumage, the chief differences being 
in the sharpness and breadth of the markings, due in part to the wear of the 
feathers. 6-64; wing about 24; tail nearly or quite 3. Eastern United 
States; one of our most abundant birds everywhere, and a well known 
pleasing songster. WIALS., ii, 125, pl. 16, f.4; Nourr., i, 486; Avwp., iii, 
EE ar 805 00) BY OO 


Oss. The Eastern song sparrow is simply one variety of a bird distributed from 
Atlantic to Pacific, and which in the West is split into numerous geographical races, 
some of them looking so different from typical melodia that they have been con- 
sidered as distinct species, and even placed in other genera. This differentiation 
affects not only the color, but the size, relative proportion of parts, and particularly 
the shape of the bill; and it is sometimes so great, as in case of M. insignis, that 
less dissimilar looking birds are commonly assigned to different genera. Neverthe- 
less, the gradation is complete, and effected by imperceptible degrees. The follow- 
ing varieties have been described, and may usually be recognized. 

Var. FALLAX Bp., 481; Coop.,215. Extremely similar; wings and tail slightly 
longer; paler, grayer ; the streaks not so obviously blackish in the centre. Whole 
of Rocky Mountains and Great Basin; scarcely distinguishable. 

Var. currata Nort., i, 2d ed. 581; Fringilla cinerea, Aup., iii, 145, pl. 187. 
Darker and more rufous, the colors more blended, from indistinctness of the 
streaks; below, quite brownish, except on middle of belly. Pacific coast, U.S., 
and British Columbia. 

Var. rurtnA Bp., 480; Coor., 214. Similar, but larger; color more fuliginous. 
Sitka, Alaska. 

Var. HeEERMANNI Bo., 478; Coop., 212. Grayish, the streaks numerous, broad, 
distinct, mostly lacking pale edging. California. 

Var. coutpi Bp., 479. Similar to the last, in distinctness of the black streaks, 
but very small, under 5; wing little over 2; tail 24. California. Ammodromus 
samuelis Bo., 455, pl. 71, f. 1; Coor., 191, is the same bird. 


7 


140 FRINGILLID, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 70, 71. 


Var. insicnis Bp., Trans. Chicago Acad. 1869, 319, pl. 29, f. 1. Plumbeous 
brown, not rufous, the dorsal streaks fine; beneath, plumbeous white, with almost 
confluent ashy-brown streaks. Large; 7; wing and tail 3}; bill slender and very 
long, .60. Kadiak, Alaska. 


70. Genus PEUCAA Audubon. 


* Edge and _ bend of wing yellowish, as in Cotwrniculus, which the species much 
resembles in the color of the upper parts; but it has no obvious yellowish about 
the head ; the wings are not longer than the tail, and the tail feathers, though very 
narrow and lanceolate, are not acute at tip. 

Bachman’s Finch. Upper parts, including crown, continuously streaked 
with blackish, dull chestnut and ashy-gray ; wing coverts and inner second- 
aries marked like the back; below, dull brownish-ash, or brownish-gray, 
whitening on the belly, deepest on sides and across breast, nowhere 
obviously streaked in adult plumage ; some obscure dusky maxillary streaks, 
some vague dusky markings on auriculars, a slight ashy superciliary line 
and very obscure median ashy line on crown; bill dark above, pale below ; 
legs very pale ; lateral claws falling far short of base of middle claw; hind 

claw much shorter than its digit ; tarsus not longer than middle toe and claw ; 
tail much rounded, with obscure grayish-white area on the lateral feathers. 
Young have the breast and sides evidently streaked. 53-6; wing 24; 
tail 24. Southern States. Nurt., i, 568; Avup., ili, 113; "pleas 
Bp, 484... 8 sea. |e a eae et 

Var. cassinu. Similar; paler and grayer; wings and tail rather longer. 
Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, and southward. Bp., 485; Coop., 219. 

* * Edge and bend of wing without yellow. 

Rufous-crowned Finch. Similar; rather smaller; crown uniform chest- 
nut, and maxillary streaks sharp, distinct. California. Cass., Ill. 135, 
pl. 20; Bp., 486; Coop., 218.  ..°. 2. . . «) \. 7) Se 


71. Genus POOSPIZA Cabanis. 


*,* Southwestern species, with rounded blackish tail not shorter than the wings, 
plumbeous-black bill and feet, and few decided streaks, or none. 

Black-throated Finch. Face, chin and throat sharply jet-black; a strong 
pure white superciliary line, and another bounding the black of the throat ; 
under eyelid also pure white; auriculars dark slate ; 
no yellow anywhere. Below, pure white; the sides, 
flanks and crissum shaded with ashy or fulvous- 
brownish, but no streaks. Above, uniform grayish- 
brown; wings dusky, coverts and inner quills edged 
with the colors of the back; tail black, with narrow 
grayish edgings, the outer feather sharply edged and 
tipped with white and several others similarly tipped. 
Small, 5-54; wing about 25; tail 23. In the young the head-markings 
are obscure, there is little or no black on the throat, and a few pectoral 


Fic. 8. Black-throated Finch. 


FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN,. 72. 141 


streaks. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California. Cass., Ill. 150, pl. 
aes mp., 440; Coor., 203. . . . . . BILINEATA. 

Bell ts Finch. No definite black oer ‘Wend: at Se of wing slightly 
yellowish. Forchead, line over eye and edges of evens) inconspicuously 
white. Below white, more or less tinged with pale brownish, the sides with 
slight sparse streaks that anteriorly become aggregated into rather vague 
maxillary stripes cutting off from the white throat a whitish line that runs 
from the corner of the bill; lores and circumocular region dusky. Above 
grayish-brown, ashier on head, the crown and back with small sparse sharp 
black streaks ; wing coverts and inner quills with much fulvous edging; tail 
black with slight pale edgings, the outer web of the outer eae Sty 
whitish. About 6 long; wing and tail 3. Utah, New Mexico, Arizona and 
Califormia. Bp., 470; Exxior, pl. 14; Coor., 204. . . . . BELLI. 


72. Genus JUNCO Wagler. 


*.* Unspotted, unstreaked, the colors in large definite areas; 2-3 outer tail 
feathers white ; bill flesh-colored. Length, 6-7; wing and tail about 3. 
Snowbird. Blackish-ash, below abruptly pure white from the breast. In 
the 9, and in fact in most fall and winter specimens, the upper parts have a 
more grayish, or even a decidedly brownish cast, and the inner quills are 
edged with pale bay. One of our most abundant and familiar sparrows, in 
flocks, from October to April; retires to high latitudes and mountains, to 
breed. Chiefly Eastern; but also found in Alaska (Dall), Washington 
Territory (Suckley) and Arizona (Coues). A western variety has the mid- 
dle and greater wing coverts tipped with white, forming two conspicuous 
ene ins., i, 129, pl. 16, f. 6; Nurr., i, 491; Auvp., iii, 88, 
peers to., 468... . . . « HYEMALIS. 
Oregon Snowbird. Head i set all anal saa heat? black; middle 
of back dull reddish-brown, and wings much edged with the same; below 
from the breast abruptly white, tinged on the sides with pale reddish-brown. 
In the ¢ and young the black is obscured by brownish, but the species may 
always be distinguished by an evident contrast in color between the inter- 
scapulars and head, and the fulvous wash on the sides. Rocky Mountains 
to the Pacific; as abundant there as Ayemalis is with us. Avp., iii. 91, 
eens om., 4600; Coor.,199.. . . . - » « OREGONUS. 
Cinereous ontird. Clear grayish-ash, re rather gradually into 
white on belly; interscapulars abruptly, definitely, chestnut or rusty-brown ; 
lores blackish; no fulvous wash on sides; no chestnut on wings. Rocky 
Mountains, U. S., and southward. Bop., 467, 468; Coor., 201; Cours, 
- Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866,50. . . . . . . CINEREUS var. CANICEPS. 
Ozs. The true cinereus, a Mexican bird, has the wing coverts edged with rusty 
like the back, the bill black and yellow. Junco dorsalis Henry, Proc. Phila. Acad. 
1858, 117, is caniceps approaching cinereus—perhaps a hybrid. J. annectens Bo., in 
Coor., 564, based on specimens I procured in Arizona, is intermediate between 
oregonus and caniceps—in all probability a hybrid. See Cours, Proc. Acad. 


142 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 73. 


Phila. 1866, p. 50. Specimens intermediate between oregonus and hyemalis have 
been instanced (Ripeway, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1869, 126), and all these forms of the 
genus, in fact, seem to be nascent species, still unstable in character; but the 
modification of the Junco stock has passed the merely varietal stage. 


73. Genus SPIZELLA Bonaparte. 


*,* Small species, 5-6 inches long, with the long, broad-feathered, forked fail 
about equalling the rather pointed wings, with no yellowish anywhere, and no 
streaks on the under parts when adult. 

* Species with the crown of the adult chestnut. 

Tree Sparrow. Bill black above, yellow below; legs brown, toes black ; 
no black on forehead; crown chestnut (in winter specimens the feathers 
usually skirted with gray), bordered by a grayish-white superciliary and 
loral line, and some vague chestnut marks on sides of head; below impurely 
whitish, tinged with ashy anteriorly, washed with pale brownish posteriorly, 
the middle of the breast with an obscure dusky blotch; middle of back 
boldly streaked with black, bay and flaxen; middle and lesser wing coverts 
black, edged with bay and tipped with white, forming two conspicuous 
cross-bars; inner secondaries similarly variegated, other quills and tail 
feathers dusky, with pale edges. A handsome sparrow, the largest of the 
genus, at least 6 inches long; the wing and tail almost 8; abundant in the 
United States in winter, flocking in shrubbery; breeds in mountainous and 
boreal regions. Wiuus., ii, 12, pl. 12, f.38; Nurt., i, 2d ed. 51725) Aupe 
iii, 83, pl. 166; Bp., 472; Coor., 206. . . . . . « + =aROMMERGOIaN 

Chipping Sparrow. Chipbird or Chippy. Hairbird. Adult: dill black ; 
feet pale; crown chestnut, extreme forehead black, a grayish-white super- 
ciliary line, below this a blackish stripe through 
eye and over auriculars. Below, a variable shade 
of pale ash, nearly uniform and entirely unmarked ; 
back streaked with black, dull bay and grayish- 
brown, inner secondaries and wing coverts similarly 
variegated, the tips of the greater and lesser 
coverts forming whitish bars; rump ashy, with 
slight blackish streaks; primaries and tail dusky 

BS Ee eer ee paler edges. Smaller; 5-54; wing about 23 ; 
tail rather less. Sexes alike, but very young birds are quite different, the 
crown being streaked like the back, the breast and sides thickly streaked 
with dusky, the bill pale brown and the head lacking definite black. In 
this stage, which, however, is of brief duration, it resembles some other 
species, but may be known by a certain ashiness the others lack, and from 
the small sparrows that are streaked below when adult, by its generic char- 
acters. North America, extremely abundant, and the most familiar species 
about houses, in gardens, and elsewhere, nesting in shrubbery ; nest of fine 
dried grass, lined with hair; eggs 4-5, bluish, speckled. Wmuts., ii, 127, 
pl. 16, f. 5; Nourr., i, 497; Aup., ii, 80, pl. 165; Bp., 473. . ‘seGrimme: 


FRINGILLID, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 73. 143 


Var. Anizon® Covss,n.v. Like an immature S. socialis. Paler than this species, 
the ashiness in great measure brown; crown grayish-brown streaked with dusky 
like the back, and showing evident traces of rich chestnut, but never becoming 
wholly chestnut ; black frontlet lacking, and no definite ashy superciliary line, the 
sides of the crown merely lighter brown; bill brown above, pale below. Arizona, 
and probably other portions of the same region. A curious form, as it were an 
arrested stage of socialis. Some specimens, with the least chestnut on the head, 
look remarkably like pallida var. brewerii, but this last is evidently smaller, without 
chestnut on the head, and otherwise different. 


Field Sparrow. Bill pale reddish; feet very pale; crown dull chestnut ; 
no decided black or whitish about head. Below white, unmarked, but much 
washed with pale brown on breast and sides; sides of the head and neck 
with some vague brown markings; all the ashy parts of socialis replaced by 
pale brownish. Back bright bay, with black streaks and some pale flaxen 
edgings ; inner secondaries similarly variegated ; tips of median and greater 
coverts forming decided whitish cross-bars. Size of socialis, but more 
nearly the colors of monticola; sexes alike; young for a short time streaked 
below, as in socialis. Eastern United States, very abundant in fields, copses 
and hedges, in flocks when not breeding. Whts., ii, 121, pl. 16, f. 2; 
enero to4 5 Norr.,1,499; Bp., 473. . . . . . | PUSILLA. 

** Western species, with the crown not chestnut, and streaked like the back. 

Clay-colored Sparrow. Crown and back clay-colored or flaxen, distinctly 
streaked with black, without evident bay, the dorsal streaks noticeably 
separated from those of the crown, by an ashier, less streaked, cervical 
interval; rump brownish-gray. Crown divided by a pale median stripe; a 
distinct whitish superciliary line; loral and auricular regions decidedly 
brown; wing coverts and inner secondaries variegated like the back. 
Below, white, soiled with clay-color. Bill and feet pale. Small; 43-54; 
wing and tail, each, 24. Central region of the United States into British 
America. Hmberiza pallida, Swainson, Fauna Bor.-Am. ii, 251; 2. shat- 
meee, Vil, o4/, pl. 493. Bp.,474. . .-. . . . . PALLIDA. 

Var. Brewer. Similar; paler and duller, all the markings indistinct; streaks 
of crown and back small, numerous, not separated by a cervical interval; no 
definite markings on sides of head. Size of the last, but tail relatively longer, 
rather exceeding the wings—about 22 long, thus equalling, if it does not some- 
what exceed, that of socialis, although the latter is a larger bird. It bears an 
extraordinary resemblance to the curious western variety of socialis, above des- 
cribed; but in this, as in typical socialis, the tail is appreciably shorter than the 
wings. Southwestern U. 8. Emberiza pallida Avun., iii, 71, pl. 161. S. brewer 
Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1856, 40; Bp., 475; Coor., 209. 

*** Western species, with the crown of the adult dark ash. 

Black-chinned Sparrow. Dark ash, fading insensibly into whitish on the 
belly, deepening to black on the face and throat; interscapulars bright bay, 
streaked with black ; wing coverts and inner secondaries variegated with the 
same colors; tail blackish, with pale edgings; bill reddish, feet dark. A 
small species, but measuring full 6 long, on account of the great length of 


144 FRINGILLIDE, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 74. 


the tail (fully 3), which greatly exceeds the wings (24); the young lack 
the black on the face, and have the crown washed with ashy-brown, and the 
bill dusky above; but may be known by the length of the tail. Mexico, 
north to Colorado Valley ; Cape St. Lucas. (S. atri- 
mentalis Coucn. S. cana Bo. SS. evura Cours, Ibis, 
1865, 118, 164.) Bp., 476; Cours, Proc. Phila. 
Acad., 1866, 87; Coop., 210. . . . ATRIGULARIS. 


~ 


74. Genus ZONOTRICHIA Swainson. 


Fic. 87. Black-chinned *,* Embracing our largest and handsomest sparrows, 
eds: 63 to 7} inches long, the rounded wings and tail each 3 or 
more; the under parts with very few streaks, or none, the middle of the back 
streaked, the rump plain, the wings with two white cross-bars, and the head of the 
adults with black. 


White-throated Sparrow. Peabody-bird. Adult g¢ with the crown black, 


divided by a median white stripe, bounded by a white superciliary line and 
yellow spot from nostrils to eye; below this a black stripe through the eye ; 
below this a maxillary black stripe bounding the definitely pure white throat, 
sharply contrasted with the dark ash of the breast and sides of the neck and 
head. Edge of wing yellow. Back continu- 
ously streaked with black, chestnut and fulvous- 
white; rump ashy, unmarked. Wings much 
edged with bay, the white tips of the median 
and greater coverts forming two conspicuous 
bars; quills and tail feathers dusky, with pale 
edges. Below, white, shaded with ashy-brown 
on sides, the ash deeper and purer on the 
breast ; bill dark, feet pale. 9, and immature 
birds, with the black of the head replaced 
by brown, the white of the throat less conspicuously contrasted with 
the duller ash of surrounding parts, and frequently with obscure dusky 
streaks on the breast and sides; but the species may always be known by 
the yellow over the eye and on the edge of the wing (these never being 
imperceptible), coupled with the large size and the general characters above 
given. A fine sparrow, abundant throughout Eastern North America in all 
situations, generally in flocks, except when breeding; a pleasing if not 
brilliant songster. Wmuus., iii, 51, pl. 22, f. 2; Nurr., i, 481; Aup., iu, 
153, pl. 191; Bp., 463.) po. ped ot ie ce 

White-crowned Sparrow. Adults of both sexes with the crown pure 
white, enclosing on either side a broad black stripe that meets its fellow 
on the forehead and descends the lores to the level of the eyes, and bounded 
by another narrow black stripe that starts behind the eye and curves around 
the side of the hind head, nearly mecting its fellow on the nape; edge of 
under eyelid white. Or, we may say, crown black, enclosing a median 
white stripe and two lateral white stripes, all confluent on the hind head. 


Fic. 88. White-throated Sparrow. 


FRINGILLIDE, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 74. 145 


General color a fine dark ash, paler below, whitening insensibly on chin 
and belly, more brownish on the rump, changing to dull brownish on the 
flanks and crissum, the middle of the back streaked 
with dark purplish-bay and ashy-white. No bright 
bay, like that of albicollis, anywhere, except some 
edging on the wing coverts and inner secondaries ; 
middle and greater coverts tipped with white, form- 
ing two bars; no yellow anywhere; Dill and feet 
reddish. Young birds have the black of the head 
replaced by very rich warm brown, the white of the 
head by pale brownish, and the general ash has a 
brownish suffusion, and the back is more like that 
of albicollis; but the two species can hardly be confounded. North America, 
especially eastern and rather northerly, not nearly so abundant in the United 
States as albicollis, but common in many sections in winter and during the 
migrations. Wuts., iv, 49, pl. 31, f.4; Nurr., i, 479; Aup., iii, 157, pl. 
Deneoemere b9O- 2 . . . . -. «=. . +. #£LEUCOPHRYS. 

Var. Gampetu. Exactly like the last, but the lores gray or ashy, continuous 
with the white stripe over the eye, 7. e., the black of the forehead does not descend 
to the eye. Perhaps averaging a trifle smaller, and duller colored. Mr. Allen tells 
me he has seen specimens that resembled Jewcophrys on one side of the head, and 
gambelii on the other! Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, there mostly replacing true 
leucophrys. Nutrt., 2d ed. i, 556; Bp., 460; Coopr., 195. 


Fig. 89. White-crowned Sparrow. 


.Golden-crowned Sparrow. Adults of both sexes with the forehead and 
sides of the crown black, enclosing a dull yellow coronal patch ; edge of the 
wing yellow. Above, much like a/dicollis, but with less bay; below, much’ 
like /eucophrys, but the ashy not so pure; larger than either. Young have 
the black of the crown replaced by brown, but there are always traces of the 
yellow on crown and wings. Pacific coast (to the Rocky Mountains ?), 
abundant. Fringilla atricapilla Avp., iii, 162, pl. 193; F. aurocapilla 
meeeeeded. 1,595. Bbp., 461; Coor., 197. . . . . . . CORONATA. 

Harris's Sparrow. Adult g with whole crown, face and throat jet-black ; 
sides of the head pale ash, the auriculars darker ash, bounded by a black 
line starting behind the eye and curving around them. Under parts nearly 
pure white, but slightly ashy before and faintly brownish-washed behind, 
the sides with a few dusky streaks, the breast with a few black ones con- 
tinued from the black throat-patch ; back nearly as in coronata; bill and toes 
dark, tarsi pale; no yellow anywhere; very large, tail about 34; 9 similar, 
but with much less black on head and throat. This and coronata represent 
the maximum dimensions above given, while the other two species are at 
or near the minimum. Missouri region; a bird of imposing appearance — 
for a sparrow. J. querula Nurr.,i, 2d ed. 555; F. harrisii Avp., vii, 
PED wee. ww lt Ce CU SC e)~6QUERULA. 

Ozs. Morton’s finch, /. mortonii Aup., iii, 151, is a South American species 
of this genus (Z. matutina), erroneously attributed to California. 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 19 


146 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 75, 76. 


75. Genus CHONDESTES Swainson. 


Lark Finch. UHead curiously variegated with chestnut, black and white ; 
crown chestnut blackening on forehead, divided by a median stripe, and 
bounded by superciliary stripes, of white; a black line through eye, and 
another below eye, enclosing a white streak under the eye and the chestnut 

_ auriculars ; next, a sharp black maxillary stripe 
not quite reaching the bill, cutting off a white 
stripe from the white chin and throat. <A black 
blotch on middle of breast. Under parts white, 
faintly shaded with grayish-brown; upper parts 
erayish-brown, the middle of the back with fine 
black streaks. Tail very long, its central feathers 
like the back, the rest jet-black, broadly tipped 
with pure white in diminishing amount from the 
lateral pair inward, and the outer web of the 
outer pair entirely white; 64-7; wing 34, pointed; tail 3, rounded. A 
beautiful species, abundant from the eastern edge of the prairies to the 
Pacific; the young differ somewhat, particularly about the head, but the bird 
is unmistakable in any plumage ; the coloration of the tail alone is diagnostic. 
A sweet songster; nest on the ground, of dried grass; eggs 4—5, white, 
with straggling zigzag dark lines, as in many Jcteride. AvwD., iii, 63, pl. 
158; Nurt., i, 480; Bp., 456; Coor., 193... . .° . i.) 


Fic. 90. Lark Finch. 


76. Genus PASSER Auctorum., 


English Sparrow. Bill shaped much as in the purple finch, with a slight 
basal ruff; tarsus as long as the middle toe; wings pointed; tail forked a 
little, $ as long as the wing. ¢ , above, reddish-brown, the back black-streaked, 
the crown and under parts brownish-ash, the chin and throat black; 9 lack- 
ing the latter marks. A species lately imported from Europe, now 
thoroughly naturalized, and already abundant in many towns and cities of 
the Eastern and Middle States, though not yet generally dispersed over the 
country. It has also been recently introduced into Salt Lake City, where it 
seems to thrive equally well. It has proved highly beneficial by destroying 
canker-worms, the pest of our shade trees, and our dusty streets are enlivened 
with its presence ; but if it continues to multiply at the present rate, it must 
soon overflow municipal limits, and then the results of the contact of this 
hardy foreigner with our native birds may cause us to regret its introduction, 
unless it finds natural enemies to check its increase. Lawr., Ann. Lye. Nat. 
Hist. N. Y. viii, 1866, 287; Proc. Bost. Soc. 1867, 157; 1868; 389% 
Covers, Proc. Essex Inst. 1868, 283; AxtutEen, Am. Nat. iii, 635; Ex.ior, 
|) Oe > Sere Gee Se 

Oxzs. Two other European finches, the Goldfinch, Carduelis elegans, and the 
Serin finch, Serinus meridionalis, are reported from Massachusetts, but believed 
to have been escaped cage-birds. Axten, Am. Nat. iii, 635. 


~ ee 


FRINGILLIDE, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 77, 78. 147 


77. Genus PASSERELLA Swainson. 


Fox Sparrow. General color ferrugineous or rusty red, purest and 
brightest on the rump, tail and wings, on the other upper parts appearing as 
streaks laid on an ashy ground; below, white, variously but thickly marked 
except on the belly and crissum with rusty red—the markings anteriorly in 
the form of diffuse confluent blotches, on the breast and 
sides consisting chiefly of sharp sagittate spots and pointed 
streaks; tips of middle and greater coverts forming two 
whitish wing-bars; upper mandible dark, lower mostly 
yellow; feet pale—the lateral toes so lengthened that the 
tips of their claws fall far beyond the base of the middle 
claw; this is a diagnostic feature, not shared by any other yy, 91. pin of Fox 
streaked sparrow. A large handsome species. 63-74 long; SUBrEOW 
wing and tail, each, 3 or more; sexes alike, and young not particularly 
different. Eastern North America, abundant. Wruts., iii, 53, pl. 24, f. 4; 
Norr., i, 514; Avup., iii, 139, pl. 186; Bp., 488. P. obscura VerRRILL, 
Pemeeeeeeaooc. Wat. Hist. ix,1862,p.143. . .... . . ILIACA. 

Var. TOWNSENDU. With the same size and pattern of coloration, but darker; 
above, continuous olive-brown, with a rusty shade; rump, tail and wings rather 
brighter; no whitish wing-bars; below, the markings of the color of the back, 
close, and illy defined. Pacific coast. Avup., iii, 143, pl, 187; Nurt., i, 2d ed. 
933; Bp., 489; Coopr., 221. 

Var. scuistacea. Similar to the last; above continuous slate-gray, with little 
Tufous on wings and tail, the spots below slate-colored, sparse, small, sharp. — 
Rocky Mountain region, U.S. Bop., 490, 925, pl. 69, f. 3, 4 (megarhynchus — large- 
billed form from Cala.) ; Coop., 222. 

Oss. P. schistacea and townsendii are certainly not distinct specifically from each 
other, but it may be a question whether they do not form two races of a species 
different from iliaca. In all three cases, however, the difference is solely in the 
relative intensity and predominance of certain common colors; and although the 
Western and Eastern forms may not have been shown to intergrade, they differ from 
each other less than some of the recognized varieties of Melospiza do from the East- 
erm song sparrow, and in a parallel manner. 


78. Genus CALAMOSPIZA Bonaparte. 


Lark Bunting. White-winged Blackbird. § entirely black, with a 
large white patch on the wings, and the quills and tail feathers frequently 
marked with white; bill dark horn above, paler below; feet brown; 6-64; 
wing 33; tail 2?. Sexes unlike: 9 resembling one of the sparrows, brown 
above, streaked, white below, somewhat streaked, but always known by the 
whitish wing-patch; ¢@ said to wear the black plumage only during the 
breeding season, like the bobolink (Allen). In the form of the bill, this 
interesting species is closely allied to the grosbeaks (G'oniaphea) ; and this, 
with the singularly enlarged tertiaries, as long as the primaries in the closed 
wing, renders it unmistakable in any plumage. A prairie bird, abundant on 


148 FRINGILLIDE, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 79, 80. 


the western plains, to the Rocky Mountains; Cape St. Lucas. Avp., iii, 
195, pl. 201; Nurr., 2d ed. 1, 803; Bp., 492; Coop., 225. . @IGe@monR: 


79. Genus EUSPIZA Bonaparte. 


Black-throated Bunting. & above grayish-brown, the middle of the back 
streaked with black, the hind neck ashy, becoming on the crown yellowish- 
olive with black touches; a yellow superciliary line, and maxillary touch of 
the same; eyelid white; ear coverts ashy like the cervix ; chin white ; throat 
with a large jet-black patch; under parts in general white, shaded on the 
sides, extensively tinged with yellow on the breast and belly; edge of wing 
yellow; lesser and middle coverts rich chestnut, other coverts and inner 
secondaries edged with paler; bill dark horn blue, feet brown; 64-7; 
wing 34, sharp-pointed ; tail 2%, emarginate. Q smaller; above, like the g, 
but head and neck plainer; below, less tinged with yellow, the black throat 
patch wanting and replaced by sparse sharp maxillary and pectoral streaks, 
wing coverts not chestnut. An elegant species, of trim form, tasteful colors 
and very smooth plumage, aSinelentt in the fertile portions of the Eastern 
U.S.; N. to Connecticut Valley ; W. to Kansas and Nebraska. WIts., iii, 
86, pl. 3, f. 2; Nurr., i, 461; Avp., iii, 58, pl. 156; Bp., 494. americana. 

Townsend’s Bunting. “Upper parts, head and neck all round, sides of 
body and forepart of breast, slate-blue; back and upper surface of wings 
tinged with yellowish-brown; interscapulars streaked with black; super- 
ciliary and maxillary line, chin and throat and central line of under parts 
from breast to crissum, white; edge of wing, and gloss on breast and middle 
otf belly, yellow; a black spotted line from lower corner of lower mandible 
down the side of the throat, connecting with a crescent of streaks in the 
the upper edge of the slate portion of the breast.” Bp., 495. <Auvp., iii, 
62, pl. 157; Nurr., i, 2d. ed. 528. Pennsylvania; one specimen known, 
a standing puzzle to ornithologists, in the uncertainty whether it is a good 
species or merely an abnormal plumage of the last. . . . TOWNSENDII. 


8 


80. Genus GONIAPHEA Bowditch. 

*.* Embracing large species, of beautiful and striking colors, the sexes dissimilar. 
Bill asianely pees with the lower mandible as deep as the upper or deeper, the 
commissural angle strong, far in advance of the 
feathered base of the bill, the rictus overhung with a 
few long stiff bristles. Brilliant songsters. 

Ltose-breasted Grosbeak. Adult g with the 
head and neck all round and most of the upper 
parts black, the rump, upper tail coverts and 
under parts white, the breast and under wing 
coverts exquisite carmine or rose-red ; wings and 
tail black, variegated with white ; bill pale, feet 
dark. Qabove, streaked with blackish and olive-brown or flaxen-brown, 
with median white coronal and superciliary line; below, white, more or less 


Fic. 92. Rose-breasted Grosbeak. 


ail 


FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 80, 81. 149 


tinged with fulvous and streaked with dusky; under wing coverts saffron- 
yellow ; upper coverts and inner quills with a white spot at end; bill brown. 
Young ¢ at first resembling the 9. 74-83; wing about 4; tail about 3}. 
Eastern United States, common. WIrts., ii, 135, Ze E412 Nore; i, 
Sens 2p., 11,209, pl. 205; Bp., 497. . . . . . LUDOVICIANA. 

Black-headed Grosbeak. Adult ¢ with the crown and sides of head, 
back, wings and tail black; the two latter variegated with white blotches ; 
neck all around and under parts rich orange-brown, changing to bright 
yellow on the belly and under wing coverts; Dill and feet dark horn. Size 
of the-last; the 9 and young differ much as in the last species, but may be 
recognized by the rich sulphur-yellow under wing coverts ; the bill is shorter 
and more tumid. Plains to the Pacific, United 
States; common. Avup., iii, 214, pl. 206; Bp., 
49635 Coop., 228. . . . . MELANOCEPHALA. 

Blue Grosbeak. Adult ¢ rich dark blue, uni- 
form; feathers around base of bill, wings and 
tail, black; middle and greater wing coverts 
tipped with chestnut; bill dark horn, feet black- 
ish; 63-7; wing 34; tail 3. @ smaller, plain 
warm brown, paler and rather flaxen below, 
wings with whitey-brown cross-bars, bill and feet 
brown. Young ¢ at first like 9 ; when changing, shows confused brown 
and blue, afterward blue interrupted with white below. United States, 
ratherly southerly, but N. to Massachusetts, and even Maine (oardman). 
ameato@s, pl. 24, 1.6; Norr., i, 529; Aup., iii, 204, pl. 204; Bp.; 
ee eS CRERULEA. 


Fic. 93. Blue Grosbeak. 


81. Genus CYANOSPIZA Baird. 


Painted Finch. Nonpareil. Adult g with the head and neck rich blue, 
the rump, eyelids and under parts intense red, the lores, back and wings 
glossed with golden-green, the tail purplish-blue. 9 above plain greenish, 
below yellow; young ¢ at first like the 9. 54; wing 22; tail 25. South 
Atlantic and Gulf States, common; an exquisite little creature of matchless 
hues. WIts., iii, 68, a GA. £20 ,:2'+. Kop. 111,93, is 169; Norr., i, 477; 
meus.  . boobed CERES. 

Western Wensarcil. Adult - with ‘ie firchendt cervix, bend of wing 
and rump purplish-blue, throat and hind head dusky red, belly reddish- 
purple, wings and tail dusky glossed with blue; 9 “similar’to that of 
C. amena, but distinguished by the absence of the two white bands on 
wings, and by the legs being black.” Size of the last. Mexico; Cape St. 
Lucas. Bp., 503; Coop., 234. LT eS . . VERSICOLOR. 

Lazuli Finch. Adult 2 lazuli-blue, iieeteeal. on (th back, the lores 
black, the breast definitely brown, the rest of the under parts, and the wing- 
bands, white; tibiz blue; bill and feet dark. Size of the first. 9 plain 
brown above, whitish below, the breast browner, the wings with whitish 


150 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 82, 83. 


bars. Plains to the Pacific, replacing cyanea; common. Noutrv., i, 478; 
Aup., iii, 100, pl. 171; Bp., 504; Coop., 283..  .. 5 2) ee 

Indigo bird. Adult g¢ indigo-blue, intense and constant on the head, 
glancing greenish with different lights on other parts ; wings and tail black- 
ish glossed with greenish-blue ; feathers around base of bill black; bill dark 
above, rather paler below, with a curious black stripe along the gonys. 9 
above plain warm brown, below whitey-brown, obsoletely streaky on the 
breast and sides, wing coverts and inner quills pale-edged, but not whitish ; 
upper mandible blackish, lower pale, with the black stripe just mentioned — 
this is a pretty constant feature, and will distinguish the species from-any of 
our little brown birds. Young ¢ is like the 9 , but soon shows blue traces, 
and afterward is blue with white variegation below. Size of the foregoing. 
Kastern United States, abundant, in fields and open woodland, in summer ; 
a well meaning but rather weak vocalist. Wus., i, 100, pl. 6, f. 5; Nurv., 
i, 473; Avup., iil, 96, pl. 170; Bp., 505... . -. i) 5 


82. Genus SPERMOPHILA Swainson. 


Morelet’s Finch. Top and sides of head, back of neck, broad band across 
upper part of breast, middle of back, wings and tail, black; chin, upper 
throat and neck all round, éxcept behind, rump, and 
remaining under parts, white, the latter tinged with 
cae brownish-yellow ; two wing-bands, and concealed bases of 
ul the quills, also white. 9 olivaceous above, brownish- 
yellow below, wings and tail somewhat as in the @. 
Length about 4 inches; wing 2; tail less. Mexico to 
Texas. Bp., 507. &S. albigularis Lawr., Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist., v, 1851, 
124.0 eee ce pe eel at 


Fic. 94. Morelet’s Finch. 


82bis. Genus PHONIPARA Bonaparte. 

Black-faced Finch. dark olive green, paler below, grayish-white on 
the belly ; head, throat and breast more or less blackish; wings and_ tail 
dusky, unmarked, with olivaceous gloss; upper mandible blackish, lower 
pale. The ¢ lacks the black of the g, but is otherwise similar. About 
4 inches long; wing 2; tail 13. A West Indian bird, the occurrence of 
which, in Florida, I learn from advance sheets of Mr. C. J. Maynard’s work 
on the Birds of Florida, now publishing. (Not in the 
Key.) as OR hie et re eee ae ee rane 


83. Genus PYRRHULOXIA Bonaparte. 


Texas Cardinal. Conspicuously crested, and other- 
wise like the common cardinal in form, but the bill 
extremely short and swollen. ¢ ashy-brown, paler 
below; the crest, face, throat, breast and middle line 
of the belly, with the wings and tail, more or less per- 
fectly crimson or carmine red; bill whitish. ¢ similar, 
rather brownish-yellow below, with traces of the red on the breast and belly. 


Fic. 95. Texas Cardinal. 


FRINGILLID®, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 84, 85. ifs 


Length about 83; wing 33; tail 43. Mexico, Texas, Arizona, Cape St. 
Eueas.. Cass., Ill. 204, pl. 33; Bp., 508; Coop., 236. . . . smNuATa. 


84. Genus CARDINALIS Bonaparte. 


Cardinal fted-bird. Virginia Nightingale. Conspicuously crested ; 
tail longer than the wings, both rounded. ¢ rich vermilion or rosy red, 
obscured with ashy on the back, face black, 
bill reddish, feet brown. @ ashy-brown, 
paler below, with evident traces of. the red 
on the crest, wings, tail and under parts. 
Length 8-9; wing about 33; tail 4; 9 
rather less than the g¢. Eastern United 
States, somewhat southern, seldom north to 
the Connecticut Valley; a bird of striking 
appearance and brilliant vocal powers, resi- 
dent in thickets and undergrowth, abundant. 
Its rolling notes recall those of the Carolina 
wren, but are stronger. Whuts., ii, 38, pl. SES RE ede 
6,f. 1, 2; Norr., i, 519; Aup., iii, 198, pl. 203; Bp., 509. vrirertanus. 

Var. 1cNeus. Like the last, but paler, with the black frontlet interrupted at the 
base of the culmen, where the red comes down to the bill. Cape St. Lucas; Colo- 
rado Valley. Bp., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1859, 305; Exxior, pl. 16; Coopr., 238. 


. 85. Genus PIPILO Vieillot. 


* Colors of the male black, white and chestnut in definite areas. 

7 No white on the scapulars or wing coverts. Sexes very unlike. 

Towhee Bunting. Marsh Robin. Chewink. (ruatEe uy, figs. 17, 18, 
17a, 18a.) Adult male black, belly white, sides chestnut, crissum fulvous 
brown; primaries and inner secondaries with white touches on the outer 
webs; outer tail feather with the outer web and nearly the terminal half of 
the inner web, white, the next two or three with white spots decreasing in 
size; bill blackish, feet pale brown, iris red in the adult, white or creamy 
in the young, and generally in winter specimens; ¢ rich warm brown 
where the ¢g is black, otherwise similar. Very young birds are streaked 
brown and dusky above, below whitish tinged with brown and streaked with 
dusky; but this plumage, corresponding to the very early speckled condi- 
tion of thrushes and warblers, is of brief duration; sexual distinctions may 
be noted in birds just from the nest, and they rapidly become much like 
the adults. ¢ 84; wing 34, much rounded; tail 4; 9 rather less. Eastern 
United States, an abundant and familiar inhabitant of thickets, undergrowth 
and briery tracts, spending much of its time on the ground, scratching 
among fallen leaves; migratory. Nest on the ground, bulky, of leaves, 
grasses and other fibrous material; eggs 4-5, white, thickly speckled with 
femme) WV ILS., vi, 90, pl. 53; Nurr., i, 515; Aup., iii, 167, pl. 195; 
DE Clg tk wt et he CSC )6CU BRYTHROPHTHALMUS., 


152 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC. —GEN. 85. 


Var. ALLENIL Coves, Am. Nat. 1871, 366. Similar; smaller; less white on the- 
wings and tail; claws longer; iris white. Florida. P. lewcopis Maynarp, Birds of 
Florida (in press). 

jt Scapulars and wing coverts with white spots; sexes more alike. 


Spotted Towhee. A Mexican species. . . . . . . « MACULATUS, 


Represented in the United States by the following varieties :— 

Var. oreGonus. Oregon Towhee. Very similar to erythrophthalmus; wing 
coverts with small rounded; and scapulars with larger oval, white spots on the outer 
web of the feathers near the end; white marks on the quills very small or wanting ; 
white spots on tail feathers very small, the outer web of the outer rectrix not white 
except just at the end. Excepting these particulars, this variety looks more like 
erythrophthalmus, than like the typical maculatus, in which the body colors are 
olivaceous ; nevertheless, it shades into the latter. On the other hand, erythroph- 
thalmus, which might seem to be merely the extreme link in the chain, may be fairly 
considered a different bird; its sexes are very unlike, whereas in thg western black 
Pipilos the 9 is blackish-brown, more like the ¢ ; its note is entirely different, 
the words ‘‘towhee” and ‘‘chewink” being an attempt to imitate the sound, 
while the cry of the western varieties of maculatus is exactly like the scolding mew 
of a catbird.—Pacific coast. Pifpilo oregonus Bett, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y. v, 
1852, 6; Bo., 513; Coopr., 241. P. arcticus Aup., iii, 164, pl. 194. 

Var. arcticus. Arctic Towhee. Similar to the foregoing; the white spots of 
the wing coverts larger, those of the scapulars still larger and lengthening into 
streaks, the interscapulars also spotted with white ; the white on the quills and tail 
feathers at a maximum, as in erythrophthalmus; there are usually, also, concealed 
white specks in the black of the throat. 2 comparatively dark. Central region 
of N. A. P. arcticus Swainson, Fauna Bor.-Am. 1831, 11, 260. Norr., i, 589; 
2d ed. i, 610; Bp., 514. 

Var. MEGALONYX Bp., 515, pl. 73; Coop., 242, is the prevailing form in the 
Southern Rocky Mountain, region, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. It is 
precisely like arcticus, but the feet are larger, with highly developed claws; the 
hind claw is decidedly longer than its digit, while the lateral claws reach to or 
beyond the middle of the middle claw. In this form at any rate, the 9 is hardly 
distinguishable in color from the ¢, being blackish with an appreciable olivaceous 
shade, thus exhibiting an approach to the typical Mexican stock. (See Cougs, 
Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 89 ; ALLEN, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., iii.) 

* * Colors not definitely black, white and chestnut; no greenish; sexes alike. 


Brown Towhee. Canon Towhee. Above, uniform grayish-brown with a 
slight olivaceous shade, the crown brown in appreciable contrast ; wings and 
tail like the back, unmarked ; below, a paler shade of the color of the back, 
whitening on the belly, tinged with fulvous and streaked with dusky on the 
throat and breast, washed with rusty brown on the flanks and crissum. 83; 
wing 32; tail44. New Mexico, Arizona, and southward. This is the 
P. mesoleucus Bpo., 518; Cours, Proc. Phila. ‘Acad. 1866, 90; Coopr., 247, 
which is P. fuscus Swainson, Philos. Mag. 1827, 434, of Mexico. Fuscus. 


Var. ALBIGULA. Exactly like the last, but the white of the under parts extending 
further up the breast, the gular spots more restricted, sparser, and better defined. 
Cape St. Lucas. Bop., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1859, 305; Exiror, pl. 4; Coopr., 248. 


Agelwus pheniseus. 


ICTERIDE, AMERICAN STARLINGS. —GEN. 86. 153 


Var. crissAtis. Similar to the first; crown like the back; rather darker above, 
decidedly so below, the middle of the belly scarcely or not whitening, the gular 
fulyous strong and, with its dusky streaks, definitely restricted to the throat; the 
‘flanks and crissum chestnut or deep cinnamon brown. Upwards of 9 inches long ; 
wing 4; tail 5; @ rather less. Coast region of California (and northward ?), 
abundant. This is the dark coast form, bearing.the same relation to fuscus 
(mesoleucus) that the coast Harporhynchus redivivus bears to the paler H. lecontii of 
the interior. It is the P. fuscws of Cass., Ill. 124, pl. 17; Bpo., 517; Coopr., 240, 
but not the true fuscus of Swarnson; and its earliest name appears to be Fringilla 
erissalis Vicors, Zool. Voy. Blossom, 1839, 19. 

Abert’s Towhee. Somewhat similar to the foregoing species of this sec- 
tion; no decided markings anywhere. Dull brown, paler and more fulvous 
below, the face dusky; otherwise nearly uniform. Very large, 9; wing 4 
or less; tail 5 or more. New Mexico and Arizona; abundant in the Colorado 
Valley ; Cougs, Pr. Phila. Acad. 1866, 90. Bp., 516; Coop., 244. ABERTIL. 

*** Colors greenish ; sexes alike. 

Green-tailed, or Blanding’s Finch. Above dull olive-green, brighter on 
the wings and tail, crown chestnut, forehead blackish, edge of wing yellow ; 
chin and throat pure white, bounded by dusky maxillary stripes, and con- 
trasting with the dark ash of the breast and sides of head and neck (very 
much as in the white-throated sparrow); this ash fades to white on the 
belly; the flanks and crissum are washed with dull brownish; bill dark 
horn, feet brown; about 74 long; wing 34; tail rather more. In the young 
the markings, especially of the head and throat, may be obscure, but the 
species is unmistakable. Rocky Mountain region, U. S. and southward, 
northeast to Kansas; abundant. Avup., Orn. Biog. v, 339; Cass., IIl., 70, 
POPP seeenOOGr 2250. . . . . . « « « « « CHLORURUS. 


86. Genus EMBERNAGRA Lesson. 


Green Finch. “Above uniform olivaceous green; sides of the hood and 
a stripe behind eye, dull brownish rufous, not very conspicuous; an ashy 
superciliary stripe, rather yellowish anteriorly ; under parts brownish-white, 
tinged with yellowish anteriorly, and with olivaceous on the sides, white in 
the middle of the belly ; edge of wing, under coverts and axillaries, bright 
yellow. Length 53; wing 23; tail 2?. Valley of the Rio Grande, and 
- probably of the Gila, and southward.” Bp., 487. . . . RUFIVIRGATA. 


Family ICTERIDA:. American Starlings. 


A family of moderate extent, confined to America, where it represents the 
Sturnide, or Starlings, of the Old World. It is nominally composed of a hundred 
and fifty species, half of which may prove valid, distributed among fifty genera or 
subgenera, of which one-fourth may be considered worthy of retention. The 
relationships are very close with the Fringillide on the one hand; on the other, 
they grade toward the crows (Corvidw). They share with the fringilline birds the 
characters of angulated commissure and nine developed primaries, and this distin- 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 20 


154 ICTERIDH, AMERICAN STARLINGS.—GEN. 87. 


guishes them from all our other families whatsoever; but the distinctions from the 
Fringillide are not easily expressed. In fact, I know of no character that, for 
example, will relegate the bobolink and cowbird to the Jcteride rather than to the . 
Fringillide, in the current acceptation of these terms. In general, however, the 
Icteride are distinguished by the length, acuteness and not strictly conical shape of 
the unnotched, unbristled bill, that shows a peculiar extension of the culmen on the 
forehead, dividing the prominent antie (p. 29, § 52) of close-set, velvety feathers 
that reach to or on the nasal scale. 

Among our comparatively few species are representatives of each of the three 
subfamilies into which the group is conveniently and probably naturally divisible. 
In most of them, black is predominant, either uniform and of intense metallic lustre, 
or contrasted with masses of red or yellow. In nearly all, the sexes are conspic- 
uously dissimilar, the female being smaller, and plain brownish or streaky in the 
iridescent black species, olivaceous or yellowish in the brilliantly colored ones. 
All are migratory in this country. 


Subfamily AGELAGINA?. Marsh Blackbirds. 


Gregarious, granivorous species, more or less completely terrestrial, and chiefly 
palustrine, not ordinarily conspicuous vocalists, building rather rude, not pensile, 
nests, laying 4—6 spotted or curiously limned eggs. With the feet strong, fitted 
both for walking and for grasping swaying reeds, the wings more or less pointed, 
equalling or exceeding the tail in length, the bill conic-acute, shorter or little longer 
than the head, its cutting edges more or less inflected. *,* In gen. 87, 91, the 
tail feathers are acute; in 91, the wing is unusually rounded for this family ; in 87, 
88, the bill has an ordinary fringilline character. 


87. Genus DOLICHONYX Swainson. 


Bobolink ; Northern States. Reedbird; Middle States. icebird; South- 
ern States. @, in spring: black; cervix buff; scapulars, rump and upper 
tail coverts ashy white; interscapulars streaked with black, buff and ashy ; 
outer quills edged with yellowish ; bill blackish horn; feet 
brown. @in fall, 9 and young, entirely different in color ; 
yellowish-brown above, brownish-yellow below, crown and 
back conspicuously, nape, rump and sides less broadly, 
streaked with black ; crown with a median and lateral light 
stripe; wings and tail blackish, pale-edged; bill brown. 
The g changing shows confused characters of both sexes ; 
but in any plumage the species may be recognized by the 
stiffish, extremely acute tail feathers, in connection with 
these dimensions; length 64-74; wing 34-4; tail 23-3; 
tarsus about 1; middle toe and claw about 14. Eastern 
United States, very abundant. In its black livery, only worn for a short 
time, the “bobolink” is dispersed over the meadows of the Northern States 
to breed, and is a voluble, spirited songster. After the midsummer change, 
the “reedbird” or “ricebird” throngs the marshes in immense flocks, with 
the blackbirds ; has simply a chirping note, feeds on the wild oats, becomes 
extremely fat and is accounted a great delicacy. The name “ortolan,” 


FIG. $7. Bobolink. 


? 


ICTERID®, AMERICAN STARLINGS. —GEN. 88, 89. 155 


applied by some to this bird, by others to the Carolina rail, is a strange 
misnomer, the ortolan being a fringilline bird of Europe. In the West 
Indies, where the present species retires in winter, it is called “butterbird.” 
ees, pl. t2,f. 1,2; Nurt., i, 185; Aup., iv, 10, pl. 211; Bp.,; 
Es hee tt kt wt ep eo, SORXZEVORUS. 


88. Genus MOLOTHRUS Swainson. 


Cowbird. @ iridescent black, head and neck purplish-brown; 74-8 ; 
wing over 4; tail over 3. 9 7-74; wing 33; tail 22; an obscure looking 
bird, nearly uniform dusky grayish-brown, but rather paler below, and 
appearing somewhat streaky, owing to darker shaft lines on nearly all the 
feathers ; bill and feet black in both sexes. The young ¢ at first resembles 
the 9 , but is decidedly streaked below. North America, abundant; grega- 
rious, polygamous, parasitic. The singular habits of this bird, probably 
shared by others of the genus, form one of the most interesting chapters in 
ornithology. Like the European cuckoo, it builds no nest, laying its eggs 
by stealth in the nests of various other birds, especially warblers, vireos and 
sparrows ; and it appears to constitute, furthermore, a remarkable exception 
to the rule of conjugal affection and fidelity among birds. A wonderful 
provision for the perpetuation of the species is seen in its instinctive selec- 
tion of smaller birds as the foster-parents of its offspring; for the larger 
egg receives the greater share of warmth during incubation, and the lustier 
young cowbird asserts its precedence in the nest; while the foster-birds, 
however reluctant to incubate the strange egg (their devices to avoid the 
duty are sometimes astonishing) become assiduous in their care of the found- 
ling, even to the neglect of their own young. The cowbird’s egg is said to 
hatch sooner than that of most birds; this would obviously confer additional 
advantage. — WILS., ii, 145, pl. 18, f. 1, 2, 3; Nurr., i, 178; Aup., iv, 
IS Cw te CCU CC Ct CSC SSC PECORIS. 

Var. opscurus. Dwarf Cowbird. Similar; smaller; ¢ the size of Q pecoris; 
Q under 7; wing 31; tail 241. The difference is very strongly marked, and appar- 
ently constant. Arizona, Lower California, and southward. Cass. Proc. Phila. 
Acad. 1866, 18; Couss, ibid., 90; Coopr., 260. 


89. Genus AGELAUS Vieillot. 


*,* The ¢ uniform lustrous black, with the bend of the wing red; 8-9 long; 
wing 43-5; tail 31-4. The 9 everywhere streaked; above blackish-brown with 
pale streaks, eatining on the head to form median and superciliary stripes; below 
whitish with very many sharp dusky streaks, the sides of the head, throat, and the 
bend of the wing, tinged with reddish or fulvous; under 8; wing about 4; tail 3}. 
The young ¢ at first like the 9, but larger, apt to have a general buffy or fulvous 
suffusion, and bright bay edgings of the feathers of the back, wings and tail, and 
soon showing black patches.— Upon investigation of the variations in the character 
of the wing-patch, upon which our three accredited species rested, I am satisfied of 
the propriety of treating them as varieties of one. The 9’s are indistinguishable. 


156 ICTERIDH, AMERICAN STARLINGS.—GEN. 89, 90. 


—ed-winged Blackbird. (PLATE Iv, all the figs.) Lesser wing coverts 
scarlet, broadly bordered by brownish-yellow, or brownish-white, the middle 
row of coverts being entirely of this color; sometimes the greater row, 
likewise, are mostly similar, producing a patch on the wing nearly as large 
as the red one; occasionally, there are traces of red on the edge of the wing 
and below. In some Eastern specimens the bordering is almost pure white. 
United States from Atlantic to Pacific, very abundant. Wixzs., iv, 30, 
pl. 30; Nuzr., 1, 167; Avp., iv, 81, 216; Bp., 526. . ~~ “BaG@momoees 

Var. GUBERNATOR. Lesser wing coverts scarlet, narrowly or not at all bordered, 
the next row having black tips for all or most of their exposed portion, so that the 
brownish-yellow of their bases does not show much, if any. Pacific Coast. Nurv., 
i, 2d ed., 187; Avp., iv, 29, pl. 215; Bp., 529; Coop., 263. 

Var. TRICOLOR. Lesser wing coverts dark red, bordered with pure white. 
California. Nurv., i, 2d ed., 186; Avup., iv, 27, pl. 214; Bp., 530; Coop., 265. 


90. Genus XANTHOCEPHALUS Baird. 


Yellow-headed Blackbird.  & black, whole head (except lores), neck and 
upper breast yellow, and sometimes yellowish feathers on the belly and legs ; 
a large white patch on the wing, formed by the primary, and a few of the 
outer secondary, coverts; 10-11; wing 54; tail 45. 9 and young brownish- 


black, with little or no white on the wing, the yellow restricted or obscured ; 
g much smaller than the ¢— 94, etc. A handsome bird, abundant on the 
prairies and marshes from Illinois and Wisconsin, westward; N. to 58° 
and even Greenland (Reinhardt). Nurr., i, 176; Avp., iv, 24, pl. 213; 
Bp., 531; Coor., 267; Cours, Am.@Nat., 1870, 195. . 1cCTEROCEPHALUS. 


ICTERIDZ, AMERICAN STARLINGS.—GEN. 91, 92. 157 


91. Genus STURNELLA Vieillot. 

*.* Plumage highly variegated ; each feather of the back blackish, with a terminal 
reddish-brown area, and sharp brownish-yellow borders ; neck similar, the pattern 
smaller; crown streaked with black and brown, and with a pale median and super- 
ciliary stripe; a blackish line behind eye; several lateral tail feathers white, the 
others, with the inner quills and wing coverts, barred or scalloped with black, and 
brown or gray. Edge of wing, spot over eye, and under parts generally, bright 
yellow, the sides and crissum flaxen-brown, with numerous sharp blackish streaks, 
the breast with a large black crescent (obscure in the young) ; bill horn color, of 
peculiar shape; feet light brown, very large and strong, reaching beyond the very 
short tail. Length 10-11; wing 5; tail 34; bill}; @ smaller (91; wing 43; tail 
3), similar in color; young not particularly different. 

Fieldlark. (Puate vi, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, la, 2a, 3a, 4a.) The ree as 
above described, rich and pure, the prevailing aspect brown; yellow of chin 
usually confined between rami 
of under mandible; black bars 
on wings and tail usually con- 
fluent along the shaft of the 
feathers, leaving the gray in 
seallops. Eastern United 
States, everywhere abundant 
in-open country; imperfectly 
migratory; partially gregari- 
ous when not breeding; 
strictly terrestrial; an agreeable vocalist; nest of dried grass, on the 
ground, eggs 4-6, white, “feckied with reddish. Wits., iii, 20, pl. 19; 
one gl. 225; Nusr;i1,47; Bp., 530... . . . . . MAGNA, 

Var. NecLecTA. The colors duller and paler, the prevailing aspect gray; yellow 
of chin usually mounting on sides of lower jaw; black on wings and tail usually 
resolved into distinct bars alternating with gray bars. Western U. S. Song 
said to be different. Avup., vii, 339, pl. 487; Bv., 537; Coopr., 270. 

Oxzs. It does not appear that the Red-breasted Lark, Trupialis militaris, was 
ever taken in this.country. It is a South American species resembling ours, but 
with red in place of the yellow. Bop., 533. 


Fic. 99. Fieldlark. 


Subfamily ICTERINA. Orioles. 


Non-gregarious, insectivorous and frugivorous species, strictly arboricole, of 
brilliant or strikingly contrasted colors, and pleasing song, distinguished as archi- 
tects, building elaborately woven pensile nests. With the bill relatively longer, 
slenderer and more acute than in most of the last subfamily, and the feet weaker, 
exclusively fitted for perching. Three of our species are abundant migratory birds 
in summer; the rest merely reach our southern border from tropical America. 


92, Genus ICTERUS Brisson. 
* The ¢ black and chestnut.’ 
Orchard Oriole. % black, lower back, rump, lesser wing coverts and . 


158 ICTERIDH, AMERICAN STARLINGS. —GEN. 92. 


all under parts from the throat, deep chestnut; a whitish bar across tips of 
greater wing coverts; bill and feet blue-black; about*7; wing 34; tail 3; 
9 smaller, plain yellowish-olive above, yellowish below; wings dusky ; tips 
of the coverts and edges of the inner quills, whitish; known from the 9 of 
the other species by its small size and very slender bill. Young ¢ at first 
like 9 , afterward showing confused characters of both sexes; in a particular 
stage, it has a black mask on the face and throat. Eastern U. S., very 
abundant in parks, orchards, and the skirts of woods. Wiurts., i, 64, pl. 4, 
f.1, 2,3, 4; Aup., iv, 46, pl. 219; Nurr., i, 165; Bp., 547. . SPURIUS. = 

Var. arrinis. Much smaller; $6}; wing under 3. Texas. Lawr. Ann. Lyc. 
Nat. Hist. N. Y. 1851, 113. 

** The ¢ black and orange. 

Baltimore Oriole. Golden Robin. Firebird. Hangnest. with the 
head and neck all round, and the back, black; rump, upper tail coverts, 
lesser wing coverts, most of the tail feathers, and all the under parts from 
the throat, fiery orange, but of varying intensity according to age and 
season; middle tail feathers black; wings black, the middle and greater 
coverts, and inner quills, more or less edged and tipped with white, but the 
white on the coverts not forming*a continuous patch; bill and feet blue- 
black; 743-8; wing 33; tail 3. 9 smaller, and much paler, the black 
obscured by olive, sometimes entirely wanting. Young ¢ entirely without 
black on throat and head, otherwise colored nearly like the 9. Eastern 
United States, west to the 
mountains of Colorado 
(Allen); abundant, in or- 
chards and streets, as well as 
in woodland, conspicuous by 
its brilliant colors and spirited 
song. WIits., 1, 28, pledge 
3; vi, pl. 54; AUD inne 
pl. 217; Norr., 1, to25 eee 
548. . . . » BAETOMORE. 

Bullock’s Oriole. Similar ; 
the orange invading the sides 
of the head and neck and the 
: forehead, leaving only a 
Fic. 100. Bullock’s Oriole. narrow space on the throat, 
the lores, and a line through the eye, black; a large continuous white patch 
on the wing, formed by the middle and greater coverts. 9 olive-gray, 
below whitish, all the fore parts of the body and head tinged with yellow, 
the wings dusky, with two white bars, but the tail and its under coverts quite 
yellowish. Young 2 at first like the 9 , soon however showing black and 
orange. Rather larger than the last. Western United States, in woodland, 
abundant, replacing the Baltimore. Aup., iv, 43, pl. 218; Bp; 
Coop., 273; Cours, Am. Nat., v, 1870, 678. . 2 «es BURG Gee 


ICTERIDZ, AMERICAN STARLINGS.—GEN. 92, 93. 159 


Hooded Oriole. $ orange; wings, tail, a narrow dorsal area and a large 
mask on the face and throat, black; tips of wing coverts, and edges of many 
quills, white; size of the foregoing, but wings shorter and tail longer. The 
Q lacks the black mask; but the species may be distinguished in any plum- 
age from either of the foregoing by not having the wings evidently longer 
than the tail. Valley of the Rio Grande and Colorado, Lower California, 
and southward. Cass., Ill. 42, pl. 8; Bp., 546; Coor., 275. cucuLLatus. 

*** The ¢ black and clear yellow. 

Scott’s Oriole.  & black; below from the breast, rump and upper tail 
coverts, lesser, middle and under wing coverts, both above and below, and 
basal portions of all the tail feathers, except the central ones, clear yellow ; 
greater wing coverts tipped, inner quills edged, with white ; in the 9 or young 
the black is replaced by brownish, and the yellow is not pure; about 8; 
wing and tail about 4. Valley of the Rio Grande and Colorado, Lower 
California, and southward. Bp., 544; Coop., 276. . . . PARISORUM. 

Audubon’s Oriole. % yellow, somewhat olivaceous on the middle of the 
back ; head, neck, breast, wings and tail black ; wings with a white cross bar 
and white edging ; about 9; wing 4; tail 43. Texas, and southward. Cass., 
Ill., p. 137, pl. 21? (apparently represents the Southern smaller true melan- 
ocephalus); Bp.,542. . . . . (MELANOCEPHALUS var?) AUDUBONH. 

Ogs. Several additional orioles have been ascribed to this country, but the fore- 
going are all that appear to have been actually taken within our limits; others, 
however, may be confidently expected to occur on our Southern border. 


Subfamily QUISCALIN4. Crow Blackbirds. 


Closely resembling the Ageleine both in structure and in habits, these birds are 
distinguished by the length and attenuation of the bill, with decidedly curved culmen, 
especially towards the end, and strongly inflected tomia. The typical Quiscali have 
a certain crow-like aspect, but they are readily distinguished by several features. 
The feet are large and strong, and the birds spend much of their time on the ground, 
where they walk or run instead of advancing by leaps. They generally build rude, 
bulky nests, lay spotted or streaked eggs, and their best vocal efforts are hardly to 
be called musical. The g of most of the species is uniform lustrous black, the 
@ brown and much smaller. There is only one genus (Cassidix) besides the two 
of this country; in 93, the tail is slightly rounded and shorter than the wings ; 
in 94, the tail is graduated, and about equals or exceeds the wings. 


93. Genus SCOLECOPHAGUS Swainson. 


ftusty Grackle. 3 in summer lustrous black, the reflections greenish, and 
not noticeably different on the head; but not ordinarily found in this condi- 
tion in the U.S.; in general simply glossy black, nearly all the feathers 
skirted with warm brown above, and brownish-yellow below, frequently 
continuous on the fore parts; the 2 of the first season, like the 9 , is entirely 
rusty brown above, the inner quills edged with the same ; a pale superciliary 
stripe; below, mixed rusty and grayish-black, the primaries and tail alone 


160 ICTERIDH, AMERICAN STARLINGS.—GEN. 93, 94. 


black ; bill and feet black at all times; g about 9; wing 44; tail 34; bill 3; . 
very slender for the family, somewhat resembling a thrush’s; 9 smaller. 
Eastern North America, N.W. to Alaska (Dall), very common in the U.S. 
in the fall and winter, in flocks, in fields; breeds in Labrador and other 
Northern regions, laying speckled, not streaky, eggs. Wmukts., iii, 41, pl. 21, 
f.3; Nurr., i, 199; Aup., iv, 65, pl. 222; Bp., 551. . FERRUGINEUS. 
Blue-headed Grackle. Brewer’s Blackbird. Similar ; the general irides- 
cence green as before, changing abruptly on the head to purplish, violet-or 
steel-blue, the difference obvious ; larger; g 94-103; wing 5-54; tail 4-44; 
bill much stouter, more dike that of Agelceus, and altogether it seems to be 
quite another bird. The 9 and young ¢ differ much as in the last species, but 
they are never sorusty. Plains to the Pacific, U. S. and southward, abundant. 
Aup., vii, 345, pl. 492; Bp., 552; Coor., 278. . . . OYANOOEPHALUS. 


94. Genus QUISCALUS Vieillot. 
*.*The @ iridescent black throughout. 
Great-tailed Grackle. about 18 inches long; wing 74; tail 9, its lateral 
feathers about 34 inches shorter than the central ones; bill about 13. Texas, 


Fic. 101. Great-tailed Grackle. 


and southward. It may prove only an extreme form of the following species, 
but presents dimensions that the latter has not shown. Bp., 254. MACROURUS. 

Boat-tailed Grackle. Jackdaw. 4 153-17 long; wing and tail 7-8; bill 
about 14; graduation of the tail under 3 inches ; tarsus nearly 2, middle toe 
and claw about the same; the general iridescence green, purple or violet 
mainly on the head. Q astonishingly smaller than the g, lacking entirely 
the great development of the tail, and easily to be mistaken for 9 purpureus, 
but is rarely so glossy ; 12-134; wing 54-6; tail 43-54. 9 and young apt to 
be quite brown, only blackish on the wings and tail, below grayish-brown, 
frequently whitening on the throat and breast. South Atlantic and Gulf 
States, on the coast; strictly maritime, abundant; N. regularly to the Caro- 
linas, frequently to the Middle districts, but not to New England as currently 
reported. Avup., iv, 52, pl. 220; Bp., 555. . . . . « MAJOR: 

Purple Grackle. (PuatE vy, figs. 1, 3, 4, 5, la, 3a, ie on i & 12-13; 
wing averaging 53; tail 54; but eaee from 5 to 6; bill about 14; tarsus 14; 
graduation of the tail 1$ or less; 9 11-12; wing about 5; tail about 44. 
Iridescence of the male variable with age, season and other circumstances, 


wi 


ta 
aw 
30, 


Quiscalus purpureus. 


wa 4 
i 
f g 


CORVIDZ, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 94. 161 


but in the adults always intense, inclining to bronzy, purplish or violet rather 
than the uniform green of the last species; 9 blackish-brown, sometimes 
quite lustrous. Eastern United States, abundant 
and generally distributed, migratory, gregarious. 
Was., i, 44, pl. 21, f. 4; Nourr., 1,194; Aup., iv. 
eres! s BD. 500. . - . < . PURPUREUS. 


Var. aGL&us. (Prate v, figs. 2, 6, 2a, 6a.) Similar; 
averaging smaller, but dimensions inosculating with those 
of the last; bill relatively larger, or at least longer, with 
more attenuated and decurved tip. Florida. Q. baritus 
Bp., 556; Q. agleus Bp., Am. Jour. Se. 1866, 84; Cass., 
Proce. Phila. Acad., 1866, 404; Rrpeway, ibid., 1869, 135. ae 

Oxss. The Quiscalus ceneus, lately described as a new 
species by Mr. Ridgway (/. c. 134), appears to be based 
upon a special plumage of Q. purpureus; and since it does : 
not prove to be confined, as its describer believed, to any é 
particular region, I should judge it not entitled to rank "%S: 1% BUls of Quiseati. 
as a geographical variety. The brilliant coloration is that rep resented in Audu- 
bon’s plate, above cited. . 


Family CORVIDA. Crows, Jays, etc. 


A rather large and important family, comprising such familiar birds as ravens, 
crows, rooks, magpies, jays, with their allies, and a few diverging forms not so well 
known; nearly related to the famous birds of paradise. There are 10 primaries, of 
which the 1st is short, generally about half as long as the 2d, and several outer 
ones are more or less sinuate-attenuate on the inner web toward the end. The 
tail has 12 rectrices, as usual among higher birds; it varies much in shape, but is 
generally rounded—sometimes extremely graduated, as in the magpie, and is not 
forked in any of our forms. The tarsus has scutella in front, separated on one or 
both sides from the rest of the tarsal envelope by a groove, sometimes naked, 
sometimes filled in by small scales. The bill is stout, about as long as the head or 
shorter, tapering, rather acute, generally notched, with convex culmen; it lacks the 
commissural angulation of the Fringillide and Icteridce, the deep cleavage of the 
Hirundinide, the slenderness of the Certhiide, Sittide, and most small insectiv- 
orous birds. The rictus usually has a few stiffish bristles, and there are others 
about the base of the bill. An essential character is seen in the dense covering of 
the nostrils with large long tufts of close-pressed antrorse bristly feathers (excepting, 
among our forms, in gen. 97,98). These last features distinguish the Corvide 
from all our other birds excepting Paride ; the mutual resemblance is here so close, 
that I cannot point out any obvious technical character of external form to distin- 
guish, for example, Cyanwirus from Lophophanes, or Perisoreus from Parus. But as 
already remarked (p. 79), size is here perfectly distinctive, all the Corvide being 
much larger birds than the Paride. 

Owing to the uniformity of color in the leading groups of the family, and an 
apparent plasticity of organization in many forms, the number of species is diffi- 
cult to determine, and is very variously estimated by different writers. Mr. G. R. 
Gray admits upwards of two hundred species, which he distributes in fifty genera 
and subgenera; but these figures are certainly excessive, probably requiring reduc- 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 21 


162 CORVIDE, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 95. 


tion by at least one-third, in both cases. They have been divided into five sub- 
families; three of these are small and apparently specialized groups confined to 
the Old World, where they are represented most largely in the Australian and 
Indian regions; the other two, constituting the great bulk of the family, are more 
nearly cosmopolitan. These are the Corvinw and Garruline, readily distinguish- 
able, at least so far as our forms are concerned. 


Subfamily CORVINA. Crows. 


With the wings long and pointed, much exceeding the tail, the tip formed by the 
3d, 4th and 5th quills; the legs stout, fitted for walking as well as perching. Asa 
rule, the plumage is sombre or at least unvariegated — blue, the characteristic color 
of the jays, being here rare. The sexes are alike, and the changes of plumage 
slight. Although technically oscine, these birds are highly unmusical ; the voice of 
the larger kinds is raucous, that of the smaller strident. They frequent all situa- 
tions, and walk firmly and easily on the ground. They are among the most nearly 
omnivorous of birds, and as a consequence, in connection with their hardy nature, 
they are rarely if ever truly migratory. Their nesting is various, according to 
circumstances, but the fabric is usually rude and bulky; the eggs, of the average 
oscine number, are commonly bluish or greenish, speckled. Although not prop- 
erly gregarious, as a rule, they often associate in large numbers, drawn together by 
community of interest. In illustration of this, may be instanced the extensive 
roosting-places in the Atlantic States, comparable to the rookeries of Europe, 
whither immense troops of crows resort nightly, often from great distances, recall- 
ing the fine line of the poet— ; 


“The blackening trains of Crows to their repose.” 


95. Genus CORVUS Linnzus. 

*,* The species throughout uniform lustrous black, including the bill and feet ; 
nasal bristles about half as long as the bill. 

* Ravens, with the throat-feathers acute, lengthened, disconnected. 

Raven. About 2 feet long; wing 16-18 inches; tail about 10. North 
America; but now rare in the United States, east of the Mississippi, and 
altogether wanting in most of the States; Labrador, ranging southward, 
rarely, along the coast to the Middle districts; very abundant in the west, 
there generally supplanting the crow. Wizs., ix, 136, pl. 75, f. 3; Nurr., 
i, 202; Aup., iv, 78, pl. 224; Bp. 560. C. cacolotl Bp., 563. corax (var?). 

White-necked Raven. Smaller; concealed Jases of cervical feathers 
pure white. Southwestern U.S. Bn., 565; Coop., 284. - cryPTOLEUCUS. 

** Crows, with the throat-feathers oval and 
eS =A blended. 
FEZA fi Crow. Length 18-20; wing 13-14; tail 
( about 8; bill “12-9, its height at base 3; 
tarsus about equal to the waddle toe and claw. 
Eastern North America, chiefly U. S., not 
ordinarily found westward in the interior, 
where the raven abounds. WItLs., iv, 79, ia 25, f. 33 Nurt.,.1,.20i 
Aup., jiv, 87, pl.225 iBp:, S6624.5-/e8 J. » » + AMERIGARIES 


Fic. 103. Bill of Crow. 


CORVIDH, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 96, 97. 163 


Var. FLoRmpANus Bp., 568, represents the greater relative size of the bill and 
feet shown by many birds of Florida and corresponding latitudes. 

Var. caurinus Bp., 569; Coopr., 285, is a smaller race from the Pacific Coast ; 
maritime ; piscivorous ; voice said to be different. 

Fish Crow. Small; 14-16 inches long; wing 10-11; tail 6-7; tarsus 
about equal to middle toe alone; a bare space about the gape? South 
Atlantic and Gulf States, north to New England, common; maritime, 
piscivorous. Apparently a different bird, as it presents some tangible dis- 
tinctions, although constantly associated with the last. Wus., v, 27, pl. 
aa 25 Norr., 1, 216; Aup., iv, 94, pl. 226; Bp., 571. . ossiFRaGus. 


96. Genus PICICORVUS Bonaparte. 


Clarke's Crow. Gray, often bleaching on the head; wings glossy black, 
most of the secondaries broadly tipped with white; tail white, the central 
feathers black ; bill and feet black. About 
a foot long ; wing 74-8 inches ; tail 43-5 ; 
bill 13; nasal feathers very short for this 
family ; claws very large and much curved. 
Coniferous belt of the West, N. to Sitka, 
S. to Mexico, E. to Nebraska, W. to the 
Coast Range; the American representa- 
tive of the European nutcracker, Nucifraga caryocatactes; abundant, imper- 
fectly gregarious. WILS., iii, 29, pl. 20; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 251; Avp., iv, 
Beas, Ip., 3/05 COOP.,289.°. . . . . . . COLUMBIANUS. 


Fic. 104. Clarke’s Crow. 


97. Genus GYMNOKITTA Maximilian. 


Blue Crow. Dull blue, very variable in intensity, nearly uniform, but 
brightest on the head, fading on the belly ; the throat with whitish streaks ; 
wings dusky on the inner webs; bill and feet 
black; g 11-12; wing about 6; tail about 44; 
bill 1$; @ smaller, duller. Rocky Mountain 
region ; much the same elevated distribution as 
the last, but apparently rather more southerly ; 
decidedly gregarious, and very abundant in 

ee Crow. some places, though still rare in collections. 
A remarkable bird, combining the form of a crow with the color and rather 
the habits of a-jay, and a peculiarly shaped, slender, lengthened and acute 
bill; the antiz are prominent and somewhat antrorse, but do not hide the 
nostrils. Cass., Ill. 165, pl. 28; Bpo., 574; Coor., 292. cyaNOCEPHALUS. 


Subfamily GARRULINA. Jays. 


With the wings much shorter than or about equalling the tail, both rounded, the 
tip of the wing formed by the 4th-7th quills. The feet, as well as the bill, are 
usually weaker than in the true crows, and the birds are more strictly arboricole, 
usually advancing by leaps when on the ground, to which they do not habitually 


164 CORVIDZ, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 98, 99. 


resort. In striking contrast to most Corvine, the jays are usually birds of bright 
and striking colors, among which blue is the most prominent, and the head is 
frequently crested. The sexes are nearly alike, and the changes of plumage do not 
appear to be as great as is usual among highly colored birds, although some differ- 
ences are frequently observable. Our well known blue jay is a familiar illustration 
of the habits and traits of the species in general. They are found in most parts of 
the world, and reach their highest development in the warmer portions of America. 
With one boreal exception (Perisoreus), the genera of the Old and New World are 
entirely different. = 

It is proper to observe, that, while the American Corvinw and Garruline, upon 
which the foregoing paragraphs are mainly drawn up, are readily distinguishable, 
the characters given may require modification in their application to the whole 
family, the different divisions of which appear to intergrade closely. 


98. Genus PSILORHINUS Rueppel. 


Brown Jay. Smoky brown, darker on head, fading on belly ; wings and 
tail with bluish gloss; bill and feet black, sometimes yellow ; about 16 long ; 
wing 74; tail 8$, much graduated; bill 14, very stout; nostrils naked ; 

4 head uncrested. Rio Grande Valley and 
southward. Bp., 592. .°. ima 


89. Genus PICA Brisson. 


Magpie. Lustrous black, with green, 
purple and violet, and even golden 
iridescence, especially on the tail and 
wings; below from the breast, a scap- 
ular patch, and edging of the quills, 
white; some whitish touches on the 
throat; bill and feet black. Length 15 
or 20 inches, according to the develop- 
ment of the tail, which is a foot or less 
long, extremely graduated ; wing about 
8, the outer primary short, slender, 
and falcate. Arctic America, and U. 8S. 
from Plains to Pacific, except California ; 
common. Wits.; iv, 75, plo ioae 

ee eee Nurt., i, 219; Aup., iv, 99, pl 227; 
Bp. 576. oe ee ew ws Ue le oe OS 4 MELANOLEDOA Var. EUaaee 

Var. nuTrattu. Yellow-billed Magpie. Bill yellow; otherwise precisely like the 
last, of which it is a perpetuated accident! The European Magpie sometimes 
shows the same thing, and in some other species, like P. morio, the bill is indiffer- 
ently black or yellow. California. Auvp., iv, 104, pl. 228; Nurr., i, 2d ed., 236 ; 
Bp., 578; Coopr., 295. 

Ozs. The Columbian Magpie, Pica bullockii of Aup., iv, 105, pl. 229, and 
Norr., i, 220, is the Calocitta colliei, a magnificent species of the West Coast of 
Mexico, erroneously attributed to California and Oregon. 


CORVIDZ, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 100, 101. 165 


100. Genus CYANURUS Swainson. 


-*.* Conspicuously crested; wings and tail blue, black-barred; bill and feet 
black. Length 11-12; wing or tail 5-6. 

Blue Jay. Purplish-blue, below pale purplish-gray, whitening on the 
throat, belly and crissum ; a black collar across the lower throat and up the 
sides of the neck and head behind the crest, and a black frontlet bordered 
with whitish ; wings and tail pure rich blue, with black bars, the greater 
coyerts, secondaries and tail feathers, except the central, broadly tipped with 
pure white ; tail much rounded, the graduation over an inch. Eastern North 
America, especially the United States, everywhere abundant. Wizs., i, 2, 
plot, ft. 2; Aup., iv, 110, pl. 231; Nurr., i, 224; Bo., 580. cristatus. 

Steller’s Jay. Sooty brown, darker on the head, passing insensibly into 
rich blue on the rump and below from the breast; wings and tail deep 
prussian blue, with black bars (wanting in very young birds) ; crest faced 
with some blue touches, and throat with some whitish streaks; no white on 


Fic. 107. Steller’s Jay; long-crested variety. 


the eyelids; tail moderately rounded ; crest about two inches long when full 
grown. Western North America; the typical bird rather northerly. Nurr., 
Hn, 229; Avp., iv, 107, pl. 230; Bp., 581; Coop., 298... . STELLERII. 

Var. macrotoruus. Long-crested Juy. Similar; head quite black; crest longer? 
the facing bluish-white, and some white touches on the eyelids. Southern Rocky 
Mountain region. Bp., 582; Ext., pl. 17; Coor., 300; Cours, Am. Nat. v. 1871, 
770. 


101. Genus APHELOCOMA Cabanis. 


* ,* Not crested ; wings and tail blue, not barred. 

Florida Jay. Blue; back with a large well-defined gray patch, belly 
and sides pale grayish, under tail coverts and tibiz blue in marked contrast ; 
much hoary whitish on forehead and sides of crown; chin, throat and middle 
of breast vague streaky whitish ; ear-coverts dusky; the blue that seems to 
encircle the head and neck well defined against the gray of back and breast ; 
bill comparatively short, very stout at the base. About 12; wing 5 or less; 


166 CORVIDH, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 102, 103. 


tail about 6, much rounded; bill about 1. Florida (and Gulf States?), 
abundant. Nurr., i, 230; Aup., iv, 118, pl. 233; Bp., 586. FLORIDANA. 


Var. woopnousri1. The dorsal patch dark, somewhat glossed with blue, shading 
into the blue of surrounding parts; under parts rather darker, somewhat bluish- 
gray; the tail coverts pale bluish but not contrasted; on the breast the blue and 
gray shading into each other, the gular and pectoral 
streaks whitish and well defined, the superciliary line 
definite white, but no hoary on forehead ; bill slenderer. 
Southern Rocky Mountain region. Bp., 585, pl. 59; 
Coopr., 304. 

Var. CALIFoRNICA. California Jay. The dorsal 
patch light and distinct as in true floridana, but the 
under parts, including tail coverts and tibiz, nearly 
white ; gular streaks very large, aggregated, and white, 
causing this part to be nearly uniform; a white super- 
ciliary line, but no hoary on forehead, as in woodhousei; bill slender. Thus it is 
seen that each of the three forms presents a varying emphasis of common char- 
acters. Pacific Coast, U.S. Avp., iv, 115, pl. 232; Bp., 584; Coop., 302. 

Sieber’s Jay. Bright blue, scarcely duller on the middle of the back, 
below white, the throat and breast tinged with blue. Length 13; wing 6%; 
tail about the same, rounded, the graduation nearly an inch; tarsus 1%; 
bill 1, its height at base nearly $4. Bp., 587; Coopr., 305. . . SORDIDA. 


Oxss. Not having seen this species, I take the name and description from the 
works cited, without raising the question of its relation- 
ships to its allies, especially C. ultramarinus. 


Fic. 108, Florida Jay. 


102. Genus XANTHOURA Bonaparte. 


Rio Grande Jay. Green, below greenish-yellow, 
inside of the wings and all the tail feathers except 
the central pair, clear yellow; crown, nape and 
stripe from bill to eye, rich blue; forehead hoary 
white; rest of the head and whole throat velvety 
black ; central tail feathers greenish-blue ; bill black ; 
feet dark. About 11 long; wing 44, rounded, with elongated inner quills ; 
tail 5, graduated an inch or more; Dill very short and stout. Southern 
Texas and southward. Cass., Ill. i, pl. 1; Bp., 589. yNncas var. LUXUOSA. 


Fic. 109. Rio Grande Jay. 


103. Genus PERISOREUS Bonaparte. 


Canada Jay. Whiskey Jack. Gray, whitening anteriorly, with a darker 
nuchal area; wings and tail plumbeous, the feathers obscurely tipped with 
whitish ; bill and feet black. Young much darker, sooty or smoky brown ; 
the bleaching progresses indefinitely with age. 10-11 long; wing 53-6; 
tail rather more, graduated ; tarsus 14; bill under 1, shaped like a titmouse’s. 
Arctic America, into the N. States, S. along the Rocky Mountains to 40° and 
perhaps further; breeds in Maine in winter. WILs., iii, 33, pl. 21; Nurr., 
i, 232; Aup., iv, 121, pl..234; Bp., 590; Coop., 307. . CANADENSIS. 


TYRANNIDZ®, FLYCATCHERS. 167 


Oss. Several additional species of jays have been ascribed to our country, but 
apparently upon insufficient evidence or erroneous information. 


Suborder CLAMATORES. Non-melodious Passeres. 


As already intimated (p. 70), the essential character of this group, as distin- 
guished from Oscines, is an anatomical one, consisting in the non-development of a 
singing apparatus ; the vocal muscles of the lower larynx (syrinz) being small and 
weak, or else forming simply a large fleshy mass, not separated into particular 
muscles. This character, however, appears subject to some uncertainty of deter- 
mination, and probably does not always correspond with the only external character 
assignable to the group, namely, a certain condition of the tarsal envelope rarely if 
ever seen in the higher Passeres. If the leg of a kingbird, for example, be closely 
examined, it will be seen covered with a row of scutella forming cylindrical plates 
continuously enveloping the tarsus like a segmented scroll, and showing on its 
postero-internal face a deep groove where the edges of the envelope come together ; 
this groove widening into a naked space above, partially filled in behind with a 
row of small plates. With some minor modifications, this condition marks the 
clamatorial birds, and is something tangibly different from the ordinary oscine 
character of the tarsus, which consists in the presence on the sides of entire 
corneous laminz meeting behind in a sharp ridge; and even when, as in the 
ease of Eremophila and Ampelis, there is extensive subdivision of the lamin 
on the sides or behind, the arrangement does not exactly answer to the above 
description. The Clamatores represent the lowest Passeres, approaching the large 
order Picarie (see beyond) in the steps by which they recede from Oscines, yet well 
separated from the Picarian birds. The families composing the suborder, as 
commonly received, are few in number; only one of them is represented in North 
America, north of Mexico. 


Family TYRANNIDA. Flycatchers. 


While having a close general resemblance to some of the foregoing insectivorous 
Passeres, the North American representatives of tlris family will be instantly distin- 
guished by the above-described condition of the tarsus; and from the birds of 
the following order by the Passerine characters of twelve rectrices, greater wing 
coverts not more than half as long as the secondaries, and hind claw not smaller 
than the middle claw. 

This family is peculiar to America; it is one of the most extensive and character- 
istic groups of its grade in the New World, the Tanagride and T'rochilide alone 
approaching it in these respects. There are over four hundred current species, 
distributed among about a hundred genera and subgenera. As well as I can 
judge at present, at least two-thirds of the species are valid, or very strongly 
marked geographical races, the remainder being about equally divided between 
slight varieties and mere synonyms. Only a small fragment of the family is repre- 
sented within our limits, giving but a vague idea of the numerous and singularly 
diversified forms abounding in tropical America. Some of these grade so closely 
toward other families, that a strict definition of the Tyrannidw becomes extremely 
difficult ; and I am not prepared to offer a satisfactory diagnosis of the whole group. 
Our species, however, are closely related to each other, and may readily be defined 
in a manner answering the requirements of the present volume. With a possible 
exception, not necessary to insist upon in this connection, they belong to the 


168 TYRANNIDA, FLYCATCHERS. 


Subfamily TYRANNIN A, True Tyrants, 


presenting the following characters :—Wings of 10 primaries, the 1st never spurious 
nor very short, one or more frequently emarginate or attenuate on the inner web 
near the end. ‘Tail of 12 rectrices, usually nearly even, 
sometimes deeply forficate. Feet small, weak, exclu- 
sively fitted for perching ; the tarsus little if any longer 
than the middle toe and claw, the anterior toes, 
especially the outer, extensively coherent at base. 


Bill very broad and more or less depressed at the base, 
and tapering to a fine point, thus presenting a more or 
, f=) f=) 
ok. ao Pee) less perfectly triangular outline when viewed from 
<< above; the tip abruptly deflected and usually plainly 
notched just behind the bend; the culmen smooth and - 


rounded transversely, straight or nearly so lengthwise, 
except towards the end; the commissure straight (or 
slightly curved) except at the end; the gonys long, flat, 
not keeled. Nostrils small, circular, strictly basal, 
overhung but not concealed by bristles. Mouth capa- 
cious, its roof somewhat excavated, the rictus ample 
and deeply cleft, the commissural point almost beneath 
the anterior border of the eye. Rictus beset with a 
number of long stiff bristles, sometimes reaching nearly 
to the end of the bill, but generally shorter, and flaring 
outward on each side; there are other bristles or 
bristle-tipped feathers about the base of the bill. The 
bill is very light, gives a resonant sound, in dried 
F1G.110. Emargination of primaries Specimens, when tapped, and on being broken open, 

paige the upper mandible will be found extensively hollow. 
These several peciliarities of the bill: are the more obvious and important features 
of the group; and will prevent our small olivaceous flycatchers from being con-~ 
founded with insectivorous Oscines, as the warblers and vireos. 

The structure of the bill is admirably adapted for the capture of winged insects ; 
the broad and deeply fissured mandibles form a capacious mouth, while the long 
bristles are of service in entangling the creatures in the trap and restraining their 
struggles to escape. The shape of the wings and tail confers the power of rapid 
and varied aérial evolutions necessary for the successful pursuit of active flying 
insects. A little practice in field ornithology will enable one to recognize the 
flycatchers from their habit of perching in wait for their prey upon some prominent 
outpost, in a peculiar attitude, with the wings and tail drooped and vibrating in 
readiness for instant action; and of dashing into the air, seizing the passing insect 
with a quick movement and a click of the bill, and then returning to their stand. 
Although some Oscines have somewhat the same habits, these pursue insects from 
place to place, instead of perching in wait at a particular spot, and their forays are 
not made with such admirable élan. Dependent entirely upon insect food, the 
species are necessarily migratory in our latitudes ; they appear with great regularity 
“in spring, and depart on the first approach of cold weather in the fall. They are 
distributed over temperate North America; many of them are common birds of the 
Eastern States. The voice, susceptible of little modulation, is usually harsh and 


TYRANNIDE, FLYCATCHERS. —GEN. 104, 105. 169 


strident, though some species have a not unpleasant whistle or twitter. The sexes 
are not ordinarily distinguishable (remarkable exception in gen. 111), and the 
changes of plumage with age and season are not very great. The larger kinds are 
unmistakable, but several of the smaller species (of gen. 107, 108, 109) look very 
much alike, and their discrimination becomes a maiter of much tact and diligence. 


104. Genus MILVULUS Swainson. 

*.* Adults with the tail much longer than the body, deeply forficate, one or more 
outer primaries strongly emarginate, and a brightly colored crown-patch. 

Fork-tailed Flycatcher. Three or four primaries emarginate; crown- 
patch yellow. Clear ash, below white ; top and sides of head, and tail, black ; 
the outer tail feather white on the outer web for about half its length ; wings 
dusky, unmarked. Sexes alike; young similar, but primaries not emar- 
ginate, nor tail lengthened. Wing about 4; tail from 3 inches to a foot 
long. <A beautiful bird of tropical America, accidental in the U. S. 
(Louisiana, New Jersey, Audubon). Auvp., i, 196, pl. 52; Nurr., i, 274, 
iGo coos. « «fle Cle Cl elCUltlhCUtlhUe)6UTYRANNUS. 

Swallow-tailed Flycatcher. Scissor-tail. First primary alone emarginate 
(fig. 110a) ; crown-patch orange or scarlet. Hoary ash, paler or white below, 
sides at insertion of the wings scarlet or bloody-red, and other parts of the 
body variously tinged with the same, or a paler shade ; wings blackish, gener- 
ally with whitish edgings ; tail black, several outer feathers extensively white 
or rosy; wing about 43; tail upwards of a foot long. Young similar, lack- 
ing the crown-patch, less tinged with red, tail not elongated, primary not 
emarginate. Lower Mississippi Valley, Texas and southward; accidental 
in New Jersey (Assor, Am. Nat., vi, 367). A most elegant and graceful 
Bird. Notr., i, 275; Aup.,i, 197, pl. 53; Bo., 169. . . ¥FORFICATUS. 


105. Genus TYRANNUS Cuvier. 


* ,* Adults with the tail not forficate, shorter than the lengthened wings, of which 
several outer primaries are emarginate or gradually attenuate, and crown with a 
yellow or flame-colored patch. Young with the 
crown plain and primaries not emarginate. Sexes 
alike in color; primaries said to be less emarginate 
in the 9. 

* No olive nor decided yellow. 

Kingbird. Bee-martin. (Puate ut, figs. 1, 
2, 1a, 2a.) Only two outer primaries obviously 
emarginate (fig. 1104). Blackish-ash, still darker 
on head, below pure white, the breast shaded with 
plumbeous; wings dusky, with much whitish 
edging; tail black, broadly and sharply tipped 
with white, the outer feather sometimes edged #6: 11. Kingbird. Bee-martin. 
with the same; bill and feet black ; very young birds show rufous edging of 
the wings and tail. Length about 8 inches; wing 44; tail 84, even or 
slightly rounded ; bill small, under an inch long. Temperate North America, 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 22 


170 TYRANNIDA, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 105, 106. 


but chiefly Eastern United States to Rocky Mountains; rare or casual on 
the Pacific slope ; abundant in summer. Destroys a thousand noxious insects 
for every bee it eats! Wu1s., i, 66, a 13; Aup., 1, 204, pl. 565 Nommieae 
2653 Bp. 171% Coors, Sf) .u cee : . + + CAROLINENSIS. 
Gray Ringbe d. Five or six outer primaries anally emarginate. Grayish- 
plumbeous, rather darker on the head, the auriculars dusky; below white, 
shaded with ashy on breast and sides, the under wing and tail coverts faintly 
yellowish ; wings and tail dusky, edged with whitish or yellowish; the tail 
feathers merely indistinctly lighter at the extreme tip. Larger than the last ; 
about 9; wing 54; tail nearly 5, more or less emarginate ; bill very turgid, 
an inch long. West Indies; Florida regularly ; N. to Carolina rarely (Aud- 
ubon), to Massachusetts accidentally (Allen). Avup., i, 201, pl. 55; Bd., 
172. vis. Uhl Catt. acorn Aerie, Gees mone - + DOMINICENSIS. 


* * Olivaceous and yellow; belly and under tail coverts clear yellow, back ashy 
olive, changing to clear ash on the head, throat and breast, the chin whitening, the 
lores and auriculars usually dusky, wings dark brown with whitish edging, tail 
black or blackish, bill and feet black. Very young birds paler below, with rufous 
traces above. 8-9 long; wing nearly 5; tail about 4; bill 2-3. 

Arkansas Flycatcher. Several outer primaries gradually attenuated for a 
long distance (fig. 110c). Outer web of outer tail feather entirely white. Ash 
of the fore parts pale, contrasting with dusky lores and auric- 
ulars, fading insensibly into white on the chin, and chang- 
ing gradually to yellow on the belly; olive predominating 
over ashy on the back. Western U. S., abundant; acci- 
dental in Louisiana, New Jersey. Nutvt.,i, 273; Aup., i, 
MiG. U2 atchon. 199, pl. 54; Bp., 173; Coor., 312. . . Wena 

Cassin’s Flycatcher. Several outer primaries abruptly emarginate for a 
short distance (fig. 110d). Outer web of outer tail feather barely or not edged 
with whitish. Ash of fore parts dark, little different on the lores and auricu- 
lars, changing rather abruptly to white on the chin and to yellow on the 
belly ; ashy predominating over olive on the back. Southwestern U. S., and 
southward, common. Tyrannus cassiniti Lawr., Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y. 
v, 39, pl. 3, f. 2; 7. vociferans Bp., 174; Coop., 314. . ~“VOCIFERANS. 

Couch’s Flycatcher. Very similar to the last; tail dark brown, like the 
wings, and obviously forked (about 4 an inch; in cassinii the tail is quite 
black and slightly emarginate or nearly even), all its feathers with slight 
pale edges, and their shafts pale on the under surface ; yellow of under parts 
very bright, reaching high up the breast; throat as well as chin extensively 
white. A universally distributed S. and Cent. Am. species, of which a slight 
northern variety (7. couchit Bp., 175) reaches our Mexican border. S. 
Arizona (Bendire) ; Cours, Am. Nat. vi, Aug. 1872. . MELANCHOLICUS. 


106. Genus MYIARCHUS Cabanis. 


*,* No colored patch on the crown, but head slightly crested; primaries not 
emarginate. Olivaceous ; more or less yellow below, the throat ash, the primaries 


TYRANNIDZH, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 106, 107. L7E 


margined with chestnut; the tail feathers the same or mostly chestnut; wings 
rounded, about as long as the nearly even tail; feet black, bill blackish, usually 
pale at the base below. Fig. 113a. 

Great Crested Flycatcher. Decidedly olivaceous above, a little browner 
on the head, where the feathers have dark centres; throat and fore breast 
pure dark ash, rest of under parts bright yellow, the two colors meeting 
abruptly; primaries margined on both edges with chestnut: secondaries 
and coverts edged and tipped with yellowish-white, tail with all the feathers 
but the central pair chestnut on the whole of the inner web excepting per- 
haps a very narrow space next the shaft ; outer web of outer feathers edged 
with yellowish ; the middle feathers, outer webs of the rest, and wings except 
as stated, dusky brown. Very young birds have rufous skirting of many 
feathers, in addition to the chestnut above described, but this soon disap- 
pears. Large; 83-94; wing and tail about 4; bill 3; tarsus ?. Eastern 
United States, west to Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas and Texas, north to 
Massachusetts ; Mexico and Central America in winter. An abundant bird, 
in woodland, of loud harsh voice and quarrelsome disposition, noted for its 
habitual use of cast off snake skins in the structure of its nest. WHULs. ii, 
Peas ure, 1, 2¢1; Aup., i, 209, pl. 57; Bo., 178. .  cRINITUS. 

Ash-throated Flycatcher. Rather olivaceous-brown above, quite brown on 
the head, the throat very pale ash, sometimes almost whitish, changing grad- 
ually to very pale yellow or yellowish-white on the rest of the under parts ; 
primaries edged as before, but secondaries and coverts edged with grayish- 
white ; tail feathers as in the last, but the chestnut of the inner webs hardly 
or not reaching the tip, being cut off from the end by invasion of the dusky. 
In young birds, in which the quills and tail feathers are more extensively 
rufous-edged, this last distinction does not hold. Southwestern U. S., 
Mexico, common ; very near the last species, but apparently a different bird. 
It is rather smaller, but with longer (4) tarsi; the bill obviously narrower, 
only about as wide as high at the base; but in Cape St. Lucas specimens 
(M. pertinax Bo., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1859, 303 ; Coor., 318), again, the bill 
is shaped as in erinitus, although smaller. Tyrannula cinerascens Lawr., 
Ann. Lye. N. Y. 1851, 109; M. mexicanus Bp., 179; Coor., 316 (not of 
meme toe. 200). Soc. 1851,51). .. . =~. . . . « CINERASCENS. 

Lawrence's Flycatcher. Very similar in color to crinitus, but much 
smaller; about 7 long, wing and tail about 34; wing coverts and inner 
quills as well as the primaries edged with rufous (rarely yellowish on the 
inner secondaries) ; no chestnut on tail feathers except a narrow bordering 
on the outer webs, and, in the young, an inner margining also; bill broad, 
flattened. Texas (?), Mexico and Central America. Bp., 181. LAWRENCEI. 


107. Genus SAYORNIS Bonaparte. 


* ,* The three following species do not particularly resemble each other; most 
authors place them in separate genera, and even under different subfamilies. The 
discrepancies of form, however, are not startling, and for the purposes of this work 


172 TYRANNIDZ, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 107. 


the species may be properly put together, as they agree in presenting a certain 
aspect not shown by the other North American groups. Fig. 1130. 

Say’s Flycatcher. Grayish-brown, paler below and changing to cinna- 
mon on the belly and crissum; wings dusky with paler edgings on the inner 
quills and coverts; tail perfectly black; bill and feet black. Younger birds 
are much more extensively fulvous or paler cinnamon than the old, this color 
extending far up the breast, skirting the feathers of the back and rump, 
forming conspicuous crossbars and edging on the wings, and sometimes 
tipping the tail. 7 or 8 inches long; wing 4; tail 35, emarginate. West- 
ern America, in open country, common. Norv., i, 277; Aup., i, 217, 
pl..59; Bp., 185; Coop., 320. yf ee Se ea ne SAYUS. 

Black Flycatcher. Sooty-brown, deepest on head and breast, belly and 
crissum abruptly pure white; lining of wings and edging of outer tail 
feather and inner quills, whitish; bill and feet black; “iris red ;” about 7; 
wing 33; tail 84. Southwestern United States and southward, in unwooded 
country, cafions, and along rocky streams. Nurvr., i, 2d ed. 811; Aup., i, 
2173 -pl..59's Bos 1853 Coops, :3203.+ 24 a5 .2 ee NIGRICANS. 

Pewee. Pewit. Phoebe. Dull olivaceous-brown, the head much darker 
fuscous-brown, almost blackish, usually in marked contrast with the back ; 
below soiled whitish, or palest possible yellow, particularly on the belly ; the 
sides, and the breast nearly or quite 
across, shaded with grayish-brown ; 
wings and tail dusky, the outer tail 
feather, inner secondaries, and usually 
the wing coverts, edged with whitish ; 
a whitish ring round the eye; bill 
and feet black. Varies greatly in 
shade; the foregoing is the average 
spring condition. As summer passes, 
the plumage becomes much duller and 
darker brown, from wearing of the 
feathers, and then, after the moult, 
fall specimens are much brighter than 
in spring, the under parts being fre- 
quently decidedly yellow, at least on 
the belly. Very young birds have 
some feathers skirted with rusty, par- 

ticularly on the edges of the wing and 

simmer Serene peer tail feathers. The species requires 
careful discrimination, in the hands of a novice, from any of the little oliva- 
ceous species of the next two genera. It is larger; 63-7; wing 3-34; tail 
about the same, slightly emarginate ; bill 4 or slightly more, little depressed, 
not so broad for its length as is usual in Contopus and Hmpidonaz, its lateral 
outlines straight ; tarsus equalling or slightly exceeding the middle toe and 
claw, these together about 14 long; point of the wing formed by the 2d to 


TYRANNIDE, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 108. 173 


5th quill; 1st shorter than 6th; 3d and 4th generally rather the longest. 
Eastern North America, very abundant, in open places, fields, along streams, 
ete. ; one of the very earliest arrivals in spring, a late loiterer in the fall; 
winters in the Southern States. Voice short, abrupt, unlike the drawling 
note of the wood pewee. Wuts., ii, 78, pl. 13; Nurr., i, 278; Avp., i, 
Deere Pots ew) PUSCUS. 


108. Genus CONTOPUS Cabanis. 

* .* With the feet extremely small, the tarsus shorter than the middle toe and 
claw; the tarsus, middle toe and claw together, barely or not one-third as long as 
the wing; the bill flattened, very broad at base; the pointed wings much longer 
than the emarginate tail. Medium sized and rather small species, brownish- 
olivaceous, without any bright colors, or very decided markings; the coronal 
feathers lengthened and erectile, but hardly forming a true crest. Fig. 11d¢c. 

* Species 7-8 long, with a tuft of white fluffy feathers on the flank. 

Olive-sided Flycatcher. Dusky olivaceous-brown, usually darker on the 
crown, where the feathers have blackish centres, and paler on the sides; 
chin, throat, belly, crissum and middle line of breast, white, more or less 
tinged with yellowish; wings and tail blackish, unmarked, excepting incon- 
spicuous grayish-brown tips of the wing coverts, and some whitish edging 
on the inner quills; feet and upper mandible black, lower mandible mostly 
yellowish. The olive-brown below has a peculiar streaky appearance hardly 
seen in other species, and extends almost entirely across the breast. Young 
may have the feathers, especially of the wings and tail, skirted with rufous. 
Wing 3g-4$, remarkably pointed ; second quill longest, supported nearly to 
the end by the first and third, the fourth abruptly shorter; tail about 3; 
tarsus, middle toe and claw together only about 14; bill 2-3. North Amer- 
ica, apparently nowhere very abundant. Nurr.,i, 282; 2d ed. 298; Aup., 
eee, pl 005 bp., 188;.Coor., 323. . . . . . . BOREALIS. 

Coues’ Pikeatcher. Somewhat similar; colors more ae and more 
clearly olive; below, fading insensibly on the throat and belly into yellowish 
white, and lacking the peculiar streaky appearance; cottony tufts on the 
flanks less conspicuous; wing-formula entirely different; second, third and 
and fourth quills nearly equal and longest, first abruptly shorter ; tail longer, 
about 32. Mexico; north to Arizona. Cas., Mus. Hein. ii, 72; Cours, 
Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 60; Exx., pl. 18; Coor., 324. . . PERTINAX. 

** Species under 7 long, without an evident cottony white tuft on the flank. 

Wood Pewee. Olivaceous-brown, rather darker on the head, below with 
the sides washed with a paler shade of the same reaching nearly or quite 
across the breast ; the throat and belly whitish, more or less tinged with dull 
yellowish ; under tail coverts the same, usually streaked with dusky ; tail 
and wings blackish, the former unmarked, the inner quills edged, and the 
greater arid middle coverts tipped, with whitish; feet and upper mandible 
black, under mandible usually yellow, sometimes dusky. Spring specimens 
are purer olivaceous; early fall birds are brighter yellow below; in 


174 TYRANNIDH, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 108, 109. 


summer, before the now worn features are renewed, the plumage is quite 
brown, and dingy whitish; very young birds have the wing-bars and edging 
of quills tinged with rusty, the feathers of the upper parts skirted, and the 
lower plumage tinged, with the same; but in any plumage the species may 
be known from all the birds of the following genus, by these dimensions : 
Length 6-63; wing 34-33; tail 22-3; tarsus, middle toe and claw together 
hardly one inch, or evidently less; tarsus alone about $, not longer than the 
bill. North America, in woodland; extremely abundant in most United 
States localities, May—Sept. Muscicapa rapax Wi1s., ii, 81, pl. 13, f. 5; 
M. virens Aup., i, 231, pl. 64; Nurr., i, 285; C. virens Bp., 190. virEns. 

Var. RIcHARDSONIL. Western Wood Pewee. Similar; darker, more fuscous olive 
above, the shading of the sides reaching almost uninterruptedly across the breast ; 
belly rather whitish than yellowish; outer primary usually not obviously white- 
edged; bill below oftener dusky than yellow, sometimes quite black. I fail to 
appreciate any reliable differences in size or shape. Note not exactly like that of 
virens ; nesting said to be different (Audubon, Allen). Rocky Mountains to the 
Pacific ; ‘‘ Labrador” (Audubon). Tyrannula Richardsonii Sw., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 
146? Contopus richardsonii Bo., 189; Coor., 325. Muscicapa phoebe Avp., i, 
219, pl. Gili; Norn, 1520 ed. alo. 


109. Genus EMPIDONAX Cabanis. 

*,* Species 5-6 (rarely 61) long; wing 3} or less; tail 22 or less; whole foot 
at least 4 as long as wing; tarsus more or less obviously longer than middle toe 
and claw, much longer than bill; 2d, 3d and 4th quills entering into point of wing, 
1st shorter or not obviously longer than 5th; tail not over } an inch shorter than 
wings; breast not buffy. (Compare 107, 108,110.) As in allied genera, several 
outer primaries are slightly emarginate on the inner web, but this character is 
obscure, and often inappreciable. Fig. 113d. 

Small Green-crested or Acadian Flycatcher. Above, olive-green, clear, 
continuous and uniform (though the crown may show rather darker, owing 
to dusky centres of the slightly lengthened, erectile feathers) ; below, 
whitish, olive-shaded on sides and nearly across breast, yellowish-washed on 
belly, flanks, crissum and axillars; wings dusky, inner quills edged, and 
coverts tipped, with tawny yellow; all the quills whitish-edged internally ; 
tail dusky, olive-glossed, unmarked; a yellowish eye-ring; feet and upper 
mandible brown, under mandible pale. In midsummer, rather darker; in 
early fall, brighter and especially more yellowish below ; when very young, 
the wing-markings more fulvous, the general plumage slightly buffy-suffused. 
Largest ; 53-64; wing 23-3 (rarely 34) ; tail 24-23; bill nearly or quite 4, 
about 4 wide at nostrils; tarsus 3; middle toe and claw 4; point of wing 
reaching nearly an inch beyond the secondaries ; 2d, 3d and 4th quills nearly 
equal and much (4 inch or more) longer than Ist and 5th, which about equal 
each other; Ist much longer than 6th. Eastern United States, abundant, in 
woodland; readily diagnoscible by the points of size and shape, without 
regarding coloration. Muscicapa querula Wius., ii, 77, pl. 138, f. 3; MM. 
acadica Nutr., i, 208; Aup., i, 221, pl. 62; Bp., 197. . . “ACADiemeE 


TYRANNID®H, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 109. te 


Traill’s Flycatcher. Above, olive-brown, lighter and duller brownish 
posteriorly, darker anteriorly, owing to obviously dusky centres of the 
coronal feathers; below, nearly as in acadicus, but darker, the olive-gray 
shading quite across the breast; wing-markings grayish-white with slight 
yellowish or tawny shade; under mandible pale; upper mandible and feet 
black. Averaging a little less than acadicus; 53-6; wing 23-23, more 
rounded, its tip only reaching about 3 of an inch beyond the secondaries, 
formed by 2d, 3d and 4th quills, as before, but 5th not so much shorter, 
(hardly or not 4 of an inch), the 1st ranging between 5th and 6th; tail 23; 
tarsus %, as before, but middle toe and claw 2, the feet thus differently pro- 
portioned, owing to length of toes. Eastern North America to the Plains, 
common ; an entirely different bird from acadicus, but difficult to distinguish 
from the following species. Avp., i, 234, pl. 65; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 323; 
os. ew se.) TRATLLII. 


Var. pusittus of Bp., 194, which replaces true ¢raillii from the Plains to the 
Pacific, may usually be recognized by its more fuscous coloration, the olivaceous 
and yellowish shades of ¢raillii being subdued ; by its larger bill, and the feet nearly 
as in acadicus. The original Tyrannula pusilla of Swarnson, Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 144 ; 
Aup., li, 236, pl. 66, is uncertain, just as likely have been minimus as this bird. 
I therefore pass over the name, which, if belonging here, antedates ¢traillii, and 
adopt traillii for the eastern form (although Aupugnon says ‘“‘Arkansas to the 
Columbia”), taking pusillus of Barrp for the western variety. 


Least Flycatcher. Colors almost exactly as in ¢raillii; usually however 
olive-gray rather than olive-brown; the wing-markings, eye-ring and loral 
feathers plain grayish-white; the whole anterior parts often with a slight 
ashy cast; under mandible ordinarily dusky; feet perfectly black. Itisa 
smaller bird than ¢raz/li7, and not so stoutly built ; the wing-tip projects only 
about $ an inch beyond the secondaries; the 5th quill is but very little 
shorter than the 4th, the Ist apt to be nearer 6th than 5th; the feet are 
differently proportioned, being much as in acadicus; the bill is obviously 
under 4 an inch long. Length 5-53; wing 22 or less; tail about 24. 
Although it grades up to ¢rai/l/ii in size, and has no obviously different color- 
ation, yet I am satisfied that it is a different bird. Eastern North America to 
the Plains, very abundant in the U.S. during the migrations, in orchards, 
coppices, hedgerows and the skirts of woods rather than in heavy forests. 
- Aup.,.vii, 343, pl. 491; Bo., 195. eee rede kat . MENON 

Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. Above, olive-green, clear, continuous and 
uniform as in acadicus, or even brighter; below, not merely yellow7sh, as in 
the foregoing, but emphatically yellow, bright and pure on the belly, shaded 
on the sides and anteriorly with a paler tint of the color of the back; eye- 
ring and wing-markings yellow; under mandible yellow; feet black. In 
respect of color, this species differs materially from all the rest; none of 
them, even at their autumnal yellowest, quite match it. Size of ¢railliz, or 
rather less; feet proportioned as in acadicus; bill nearly as in minimus, but 
rather larger; Ist quill usually equal to 6th. Eastern United States, 


176 TYRANNIDH, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 109, 110. 


common. AuvbD., vii, 341, pl. 490; Bp., 198. Var. pirricizis Bp., 198 
(in text), Coop., 328, is the paler western form. . . . FLAVIVENTRIS. 

Hammond’s Flycatcher. Above, olive-gray, decidedly grayer or even 
ashy on the fore parts, the whole throat and breast almost continuously olive- 
gray but little paler than the back, the belly alone more or less decidedly 


yellowish ; wing-markings and eye-ring dull soiled whitish ; bill very small, - 


and extremely narrow, being hardly or not 1 wide at the nostrils; this distin- 
guishes the bird from all but ménimus and obscurus; under mandible usually 
blackish ; tail usually decidedly forked, more so than in other species, though 
in all of them it varies from slightly rounded to slightly emarginate ; outer 
tail feather usually whitish-edged externally (a character often shown by 
traillit and minimus), but not decidedly white. About the size of ¢raillii, 
but not so stoutly built ; wings and tail relatively longer; feet as in minimus. 
Western United States. Bp., 199; Coop., 330. . . . . MHAMMONDII. 

Wrights Flycatcher. Colors not tangibly different from those of traillii 
or minimus, but outer web of outer tail feather abruptly white in decided 
contrast. General dimensions approaching those of acadicus, owing to length 
of wings and tail; wing 23 to nearly 3; tail 24-22; tarsi about 3; bill 
about 4, extremely narrow (much as in Sayornis fuscus), its width at the 
nostrils only about $ its length. Southwestern U. S. Bop., 200, 922; 
Coor., 329.0. 1 wt Ow we 

Ozs. The foregoing account, carefully prepared after examination of a great 
amount of material from all parts of the country, will probably suffice to determine 
ninety out of a hundred specimens; but I confess it does not entirely satisfy me, 
and, as it does not fully answer all the requirements of the case, it must be regarded 
as provisional. At the same time I must say, that the only alternative seems to 
be, to consider all the foregoing (excepting acadicus and flaviventris, perhaps) as 
varieties of one species ; but for this I am not prepared. 


110. Genus MITREPHORUS Sclater. 


Buff-breasted Flycatcher. Coronal feathers and rictal bristles longer than 
in Lmpidonax, and general cast of the plumage buffy. Above, dull grayish- 
brown tinged with olive, particularly on the back; below, pale fulvous, 
strongest across the breast, whitening on the belly; no fulvous on the fore- 
head; sides of head light brownish-olive ; wings and tail dusky, outer web 
of outer tail feathers, edges of inner primaries except at the base, and tips 
of wing coverts, whitish; iris brown; bill yellow below, black above; feet 
black ; 42 long; extent 74; wing 24; tail 2; tarsus .55; middle toe and 
claw .45; bill.40. Fort Whipple, Arizona. Hmpidonax pygmeus CovuEs, 
Ibis, 1865, 537; MW. pallescens Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 63; Coor., 
334; Exuiot, pl. 19. My original specimens, affording the descriptions 
quoted, and the first known to have been taken in the United States, do not 
appear to be specifically distinct from fulvifrons of Grraup ( B. of Tex. 
pl. 2, f. 2), which may itself be the same as a Mexican species of 
prior mame. . .. % . . . «© «+ « .. . FULVIFRONS var. PALUMseeuse 


PICARL®, PICARIAN BIRDS.—GEN. 111. 177 


lll. Genus PYROCEPHALUS Gould. 


Vermilion Flycatcher. $ pure dark brown; wings and tail blackish with 
slight pale edgings; the full globular crest, and all the 
under parts, scarlet; bill and feet black. ¢ dull brown, 
including the little crested crown; below, white, tinged 
with red or reddish in some places, the breast with 
slight dusky streaks. Immature ¢ shows gradation 
hetween the characters of both sexes; the red is some- 
times rather orange. 53-6; wing 3}; tail 24. Valleys 


. Fic. 114. Vermilion Fly- 
of the Rio Grande and Colorado, and southward. Cass., catcher. 


Til. 127, pl. 17; Bp., 201; Coor., 333. . .° RUBINEUS var. MEXICANUS. 


Order PICARIA. Picarian Birds. 


This is a miscellaneous assortment (in scientific language, ‘‘a polymorphic 
group,”) of birds of highly diversified forms, grouped together more because they 
differ from other birds in one way or another, than on account of their resemblance 
to each other. As commonly received, this order includes all the non-passerine 
Insessores down to those with a cered bill (parrots and birds of prey). Excluding 
the parrots, which constitute a strongly marked natural group, of equal value with 
those called orders in this work, the Picaric correspond to the Strisores and 
Scansores of authors, including, however, some that are often referred to Clama- 
tores. This ‘‘ order” Scansores, or Zygodactyli, containing all the birds that have 
the toes arranged in pairs, two in front and two behind (and some that have not), 
is one of the most unmitigated inflictions that ornithology has suffered; it is as 
thoroughly unnatural as the divisions of my artificial key to our genera. 

As at present constituted, the Picarie are insusceptible of satisfactory definition ; 
but we may indicate some leading features, mostly of a negative character, that 
they possess in common. The sternum rarely if ever conforms to the particular 
Passerine model, its posterior border usually being either entire or else doubly 
notched. The vocal apparatus is not highly developed, having not more than three 
pairs of separate intrinsic muscles ; the birds, consequently, are never highly musical. 
There are some modifications of the cranial bones not observed in Passeres. Ac- 
cording to Sundevall, they, like lower birds, lack a certain specialization of the. 
flexor muscles of the toes seen in Passeres. The feet are very variously modified ; 
one or another of all the toes, except the middle one, is susceptible of being turned, 
in this or that case, in an opposite from the customary direction; the fourth one 
being frequently capable of turning either way; while in two genera the first, and 
in two others the second, toe is deficient; and, moreover, the tarsal envelope is 
never entire behind as in the higher Passeres. Another curious peculiarity of the 
feet is, that the claw of the hind toe is smaller, or at most not larger, than that 
of the third toe. The wings, endlessly varied in shape, agree in possessing ten 
developed ‘primaries, of which the first is rarely spurious or very short. A notable 
exception to this occurs in the Pici. A very general and useful wing-character is, - 
that the greater coverts are at least half as long as the secondary quills they cover, 
and they sometimes reach nearly to the ends of these quills. ‘This is the common 
casé among lower birds, but it distinguishes most of the Picaric from Passeres; it 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 23 


178 PICARILA, PICARIAN BIRDS. 


is not shown, however, in the Picidw and some others. The tail is indefinitely 
varied in shape, but the number of its feathers is a good clue to the order. There 
are not ordinarily more than ten perfect rectrices, and occasionally there are only * 
eight; the woodpeckers have twelve, but one pair is abortive; there are twelve, 
however, in the kingfishers, and some others. 

With this slight sketch of some leading features of the group (it will enable the 
student to recognize any Picarian bird of this country at least), I pass to the 
consideration of its subdivision, with the remark, that a precedent may be found for 
any conceivable grouping of the families that is not simply preposterous, and for 
some arrangements that are nearly so. As well as I can judge from the material 
at my command, and relying upon excellent authority for data that I lack, the 
Picarie fall naturally into Turex divisions. These I shall call suborders, not how- 
ever insisting in the least upon the question of taxonomic rank, but simply employ- 
ing the terms conformably with my usage in other cases. The three groups may 
be here tabulated, with remarks calculated to give an idea of their composition : — 


I. CYPSELI— including only the three families Cypselide, Caprimulgide, and 
Trochilide —the swifts, goatsuckers, and hummingbirds. They are birds of re- 
markable volitorial powers; the wing is pointed, and very long, in its feathers and 
terminal portions, though the upper arm is very short. The feet are extremely 
small and weak, and are scarcely if at all serviceable for progression. The hind 
toe is sometimes versatile (among the swifts) or somewhat elevated (in the goat- 
suckers and some swifts); the front toes are frequently connected at base by mov- 
able webbing (goatsuckers), and sometimes lack the normal number of phalanges 
(among swifts and goatsuckers). The variously shaped tail has ten rectrices. One 
family (hummingbirds) shows the tenuirostral type of bill; the other two, the 
fissirostral, on which account they used to be classed with the swallows. The 
sternum is broad, with a deep keel, entire or doubly notched (rarely singly notched) 
behind; the syrinx has not more than one pair of intrinsic-muscles. 

Il. CUCULI— comprehending the great bulk of the order; in all, about fifteen 
families, rather more than less. They are only readily limited by exclusion of the . 
characters of the preceding and following groups. ‘The sternum is usually notched 
behind ; the syringeal muscles are two pairs at most. The feet are generally short ; 
the disposition of the toes varies remarkably. In the Coliide, or colies, of Africa, 
all the toes are turned forward. In the Trogonide, the second toe is turned back- 
ward, so that the birds are zygodactyle, but in a different way from all others. 
Families with the feet permanently zygodactyle in the ordinary way by reversion 
of the fourth, or partially so, the outer toe being versatile, are—the Cuculide, or 
cuckoos, with their near relatives the Indicatoride, or guide-birds of Africa; the 
Rhamphastide, or toucans, confined to tropical America and distinguished by their 
enormous vaulted bill; the Musophagide, plantain-eaters or touracos, of Africa ; 
the Bucconide and Capitonide, or barbets of the New and Old World respectively ; 
and the Galbulide, or jacamars, of America. In the remaining groups, the toes 
have the ordinary position, but sometimes offer unusual characters in other respects. 
Thus in the Alcedinide (kingfishers), and Momotide (motmots or sawbills), the 
middle and outer toes are perfectly coherent for a great distance, constituting the 
syndactyle or anisodactyle foot. The Bucerotide, or hornbills, of the Old World, 
characterized by an immense corneous process on the bill, are near relatives of the 
kingfishers ; so are the Todide, a group of small brightly colored birds of Mexico 
and the West Indies. Other forms, all Old World, are the Meropide or bee-eaters, 


CAPRIMULGIDZ, GOATSUCKERS. 179 


the Upupide or hoopoes, the Coraciide or rollers, with their allies the Leptoso- 
mutide, of Madagascar. 

II. PICI—comprising only three families, the Zyngide, or wrynecks, with one 
genus and four species, of Europe, Asia and Africa; the Picumnide, with one or 
two genera and nearly thirty species, chiefly American; and the Picide or true 
woodpeckers. The digits are permanently paired by reversion of the fourth, except 
in two tridactyle genera ; there is a modification of the lower end of the metatarsus, 
corresponding to the reverse position of the fourth toe, and the upper part of the 
same bone is perforated by canals for flexor tendons. The basal phalanges of the 
toes are short. The wing has ten primaries, with short coverts, contrary to the rule 
in this order; the tail ten rectrices, soft and rounded in Jyngide and Picumnide, 
rigid and acuminate in Picidee, where also a supplementary pair of spurious feathers 
is developed. The nostrils vary: they are large and of peculiar structure in Jyn- 
gide, usually covered with antrorse plumules in the rest. The bill is straight or 
nearly so, hard and strong, acute or truncate, the mandibles equal; the tongue is 
lumbriciform, and very generally extensile to a remarkable degree, by a singular 
elongation of the bones and muscles. The salivary glands have an unusual devel- 
opment, in the typical species at any rate. The sternum is doubly notched behind. 
A very strongly marked group; in some respects it approaches the Passerine birds 
more nearly than other Picarie do. 


Suborder CYPSELI. Cypseliform Birds. 


See p. 178, where some leading characters of the group are indicated. 


Family CAPRIMULGIDZA. Goatsuckers, 


So called from a traditional superstition. Fissirostral Picariw: head broad, 
flattened ; eyes and ears large; bill extremely small, depressed, triangular when 
viewed from above, with enormous gape reaching below the eye, and generally with 

_bristles that frequently attain an extraordinary development; nostrils basal, 
exposed, roundish, with a raised border, sometimes prolonged into a tube. Wings 
more or less lengthened and pointed, of ten primaries and more than nine second- 
aries ; tail variable in shape, of ten rectrices. Feet extremely small; tarsus usually 
short, and partly feathered ; hind toe commonly elevated and turned sideways ; front 
toes connected at base by movable webbing, and frequently showing abnormal ratio 
of phalanges; middle toe lengthened beyond the short lateral ones, its claw fre- 
quently pectinate. A definitely circumscribed, easily recognized group of about 
fourteen genera and rather more than a hundred species, of temperate and tropical 
parts of both hemispheres. It is divisible, according to the structure of the feet, 
into two subfamilies, Podargine, chiefly Old World, with the normal ratio of 
phalanges, and Caprimulgine, as below. Considering, however, other points, 
particularly the shape of the sternum, a more elaborate division is into Podargine, 
phalanges normal, but tarsus naked and lengthened, and sternum doubly notched, 
with three genera of the Old World— Nyctibiinw, phalanges normal, tarsus short, 
feathered, sternum doubly notched, upper mandible toothed, containing one genus 
of tropical America — Steatornithine, phalanges normal, sternum singly notched, 
with one genus of tropical America—and finally Caprimulgine, comprising the rest 


{Nore. An erroneous sequence of two genera having been discovered since the key was printed, and there- 
fore too late to rectify the numbering, Gen. 112 and Gen. 113, will be found next after Gen. 125.] 


180 CAPRIMULGIDZ, GOATSUCKERS.—GEN. 114. 


of the family. The eggs are colorless in the first and third of these, colored in 
the second and fourth. 


Subfamily CAPRIMULGINA. True Goatsuckers. 


Sternum singly notched on each side behind, its body not square. Outer toe 
4-jointed; middle claw pectinate; hind toe very short, elevated, semi-lateral ; 
anterior toes movably webbed at base; tarsus very short, commonly much 
feathered. Besides the semipalmation of the feet, there is another curious analogy 
to wading birds; for the young are downy at birth, as in Precoces, instead of 
naked, as is the rule among Altrices. The plumage is soft and lax, much as in the 
owls; the birds have the same noiseless flight, as well as, in many cases, nocturnal 
or crepuscular habits ; and they sometimes bear an odd resemblance to owls in their 
general appearance. An evident design of the capacious mouth, 
is the capture of insects; the active birds quarter the air with wide 
open mouth, and their minute prey is readily taken in. But they 
also secure larger insects in other ways; and to this end the rictus ; 
is frequently strongly bristled, as in the Tyrannidw. Our two genera y \\ 
are readily discriminated by the enormous rictal bristles, rounded tail OMI y) 
and comparatively short wings of Antrostomus, the slight bristles, (a / 
forked tail and long pointed wings of Chordeiles; they each repre- j) R 
sent one of the two sections of the subfamily. In both, the feet are 
so extremely short that the birds cannot perch in the usual way, but Lg 
sit lengthwise on a large branch, or crouch on the ground. ‘They Fi¢.115. Bones of 
lay two lengthened, dark colored, thickly spotted eggs, on or near Capra ae 
the ground, in stumps, etc.; the sexes are distinguishable but nearly alike; the 
colors are subdued, blended and variegated ; the voice is peculiar. Migratory. 


114. Genus ANTROSTOMUS Gould. 


* The rictal bristles with lateral filaments. 


Chuck-will’s-widow. Singularly variegated with black, white, brown, 
tawny and rufous, the prevailing tone fulvous; a whitish throat-bar ; 
several lateral tail feathers tipped with white in the ¢, with rufous in the 
g. Large; a foot long; wing 8-9; tail 53-63, slightly rounded. South 
Atlantic and Gulf States, strictly; resident in Florida. Wus., vi, 95, 

2 pl. 54, f. 2;, Nurr., i, 6123) 
151, pl. 41; Bp., 147. CAROLINENSIS. 


* * The rictal bristles simple. 
Whippoorwill. Night-jar. Upper 
parts variegated with gray, black, 
whitish and tawny; black streaks 
sharp on the head and back, the 
PIG AIS: 5 WDM colors elsewhere delicately marbled, 
including the four median tail feathers; prevailing tone gray; wings and 
their coverts with bars of rufous spots; lateral tail feathers black, with 
tawny marbling in distant broken bars, and tipped with white (¢) or 


CAPRIMU ee GOATSUCKERS.— GEN. 115. 181 


tawny ( @ = ; a bar across the throat white ( ¢ ) or tawny ( 9 ) ; below mottled 
with dusky and whitish; 9-10 long; wing 5-6; tail 4-5, much rounded. 
Eastern United States, abundant; a nocturnal bird, rarely seen, but well 
known for its loud strange cry, whence its name is taken. Eggs 2, ellip- 
tical, 14 by §, white, speckled and blotched. Wus., v, 72, pl. 41, f. 1, 2, 
meme. t, G'4> AuD., i, 155, pl. 42; Bp., 148. . .. . . . VOCIFERUS. 

Nuttall’s Whippoorwill. Somewhat similar; small; about 8; tail under 
4; much paler in tone; crown barred transversely ; throat patch very large ; 
tawny prevailing over black on the wings; terminal white tail spots short. 
Note different, the first syllable being omitted. Plains to the Pacific, U. S. 
Aup., vii, 350, pl. 495; Cass., Ill. 237; Bp., 149; Coop., 340. NUTTALLII. 


‘115.. Genus CHORDEILES Swainson. 


Night-hawk. Bull-bat. Above, mottled with black, brown, gray and 
tawny, the former in excess; below from the breast transversely barred with 
blackish and white or pale fulvous; throat with a large w hite (2) or tawny 
(@) cross-bar ; tail blackish, with distant pale 
marbled cross-bars and a large white spot (wanting 
in the ¢ ) on one or both webs of nearly all the 
feathers toward the end; quills dusky, unmarked 
except by one large white spot on jive outer 
primaries about midway between their base and 
tip; in the @ this area restricted or not pure white. 
Length about 9; wing about 8; tail 5. Temperate 
North America, abundant. This species flies abroad 
at all times, though it is perhaps most active 
towards evening and in dull weather ; and is gener- 
ally seen in companies, busily foraging for insects 
with rapid, easy and protracted flight; in the 
breeding season it performs curious evolutions, 
falling through the air with a loud booming cry. 
Eggs 2, elliptical, 14 by %, finely variegated. Wizs., v, 65, pl. 40; f. 1,2; 
feet Glo; Aup., 1, 159, pl. 43; Bp., 151. . . . VIRGINIANUS. 

Var. neNryi is the lighter colored form prevailing in the dryer or_unwooded 
portions of western United States; the gray and fulvous in excess of the darker 
hues, the white patches on the wing, tail and throat usually larger. Cass., IIl. 
233 ; Bo., 153, 922, pl. 17; Coop., 344. 

Texas Night-hawk. Similar to the first; smaller; wing 7; tail 4; fine 
gray mottling much predominant above; below rufous prevailing over the 
dark bars; many broad fulyous bars on the tail, besides the white spots ( ¢ ) 
wanting in the 9 ; primaries all sprinkled toward the base with numerous 
fulyous spots; the large white ( ¢) or tawny (@ ) area nearer the tip than 
the bend of the wing, and on only four primaries. Southwestern U. S. 
and southward; unquestionably different from the common bird of this 
country, but in adopting the name fexensis, 1 must say that I have not inves- 


Fie. 117. Night-hawk. 


182 CYPSELIDZ, SWIFTS.—GEN. 116. 


tigated its relationships to the South American form. Lawr., Ann. Lye. v. 
1851, 114; Cass., Ill. 288; Bp., 154; Coop., 344. . . 2 5 30am 


Family CYPSELIDA. Swifts. 


Fissirostral Picarie: bill very small, flattened, triangular when viewed from 
above, with great gape reaching below the eyes. Wings extremely long, thin and 
pointed (frequently as long as the whole bird); the secondaries extremely short 
(nine?). Tail of ten rectrices, variable in shape. Feet small, weak; tarsi‘naked or 
feathered ; hind toe frequently elevated, or versatile, or permanently turned side- 
ways or even forward ; anterior toes completely cleft, the basal phalanges extremely 
short, the penultimate very long, the number of phalanges frequently abnormal ; 
claws sharp, curved, never pectinate. Sternum deep-keeled, widening behind, its 
posterior margin entire. Eggs narrowly oval, white. For pterylosis see PLATE I. 

‘¢One of the most remarkable points in the structure of the Cypselide is the 
great development of the salivary glands. In all the species of which the nidifi- 
cation is known, the secretion thus produced is used more or less in the construc- 
tion of the nest. In most cases it forms a glue by which the other materials are 
joined together, and the whole nest is affixed to a rock, wall, or other object against 
which it is placed. In some species of Collocalia, however, the whole nest is made 
up of inspissated saliva, and becomes the ‘edible bird’s-nest’ so well known in the 
East.” (SCLATER.) 

A well defined family of six or eight genera and about fifty species, inhabiting 
temperate and warm parts of the globe. They are rather small birds of plain 
plumage, closely resembling swallows in superficial respects, but with no real 
affinity to these Oscines. The family is divisible into two subfamilies, according to 
the structure of the feet. 


Subfamily CYPSELINA. Typical Swifts. 


3 joints like the 2d; hind toe reversed (in Cypselus, where nearly 

all the species belong) or lateral (in Panyptila); tarsi feathered 

Fic. 118. Bones (in Cypselus); toes also feathered (in Panyptila). Contains only 
of Cypseline rs : 

foot. these two genera and nearly half the species of the family. Of 

Panyptila there are only three well determined species, all American ; while Cypselus 

has upward of twenty, mostly of the Old World; the three or four American 


ohes are sometimes detached under the name of Tachornis. 


(7 Ratio of the phalanges abnormal, the 3d and 4th toes having each 


116. Genus PANYPTILA Cabanis. 


White-throated Swift. Black or blackish; chin, throat, breast and middle 
line of belly, tips of secondaries, edge of outer primary, bases of tail 
feathers and a flank patch, white. Length 53-6; wing the same; tail about 
23, forked, soft. Southwestern U. S. and southward, breeding in colonies ~ 
on cliffs. Acanthylis saxatilis WoopuousE, Expl. Zuni River, 1853, 64; 
Cypselus melanoleucus Bp., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1854, 118. Cougs, ibid. 
1866,-57; Bp., 141; Coops; 34%. <tc) 3 oiec eee Gee 


CYPSELIDZ, SWIFTS.—GEN. 117, 118. 183 


Subfamily CHASTURINA. Spine-tailed Swifts. 


Toes with the normal number of phalanges; hind toe not reversed, but some- 
times versatile ; our species have it obviously elevated, and should have come in 
the Key under A, like gen. 114, 115; but it has not been technically so considered 
(compare § 87, p. 49). Tarsi never feathered. In the principal genus, Chotura, 
containing about half the species of the subfamily, of various parts of the world, 
the tail feathers are stiffened and mucronate by the projecting rhachis. The other 
genera are Collocalia and Dendrochelidon of the Old World; Cypseloides, and the 
searcely different Nephecetes, of the New. 


117. Genus NEPHGCETES Baird. 


Black Swift. Blackish, nearly uniform. Length nearly 7; wing as much ; 
tail about 3, forked, stiffish, but not mucronate. Western America. Bp., 
142; Exxior, pl. 20; Coor., 349. . . . . . .NIGER Var. BOREALIS. 


118. Genus CHATURA Stephens. 


Chimney Swift. Chimney “Swallow.” Sooty brown witha faint green- 
ish gloss above, below paler, becoming gray on the throat; wings black. 
Length about 5; wing the same; tail 2 or 
less, even or a little rounded, spiny. Eastern 
United States, migratory, very abundant in 
summer. Like the swallows, which this bird 
so curiously resembles, not only in its form, 
but in its mode of flight, its food, and twitter- 
ing notes, it has mostly forsaken the ways of 
its ancestors, who bred in hollow trees, and ——— — 
now places its curious open-work nest, of bits pig. 449, 0. Chimney Switt, with mucronate 
of twig glued together, inside disused 
Maniacs. ms. 40, pl.os, f. |; Norr.,-i, 609; Avup., 7 164, pl. 44; 
2 % © “PBLASGIA. 

Vauz’s Swift. Similar ; eee ; tie bcank satis ; een. ; length 43; 
wing the same. Pacific Coast, U.S. Seems to be different from ites 
but perhaps the same asa S. Am. species. Bp., 145; Coop., 351. vauxtr. 


Family TROCHILIDA. Hummingbirds. 


Tenuirostral Picarie. These beautiful little creatures will be known on sight ; 
and as the limits of this work preclude any adequate presentation of the subject, I 
prefer merely to touch upon it. The hummers are peculiar to America. Species 
occur from Alaska to Patagonia, but we have a mere sprinkling in this country ; 
the centre of abundance is in tropical South America, particularly New Granada. 
Nearly five hundred species are current; the number of positively specific forms 
may be estimated at about three hundred. The genera or subgenera vary with 
authors from fifty to a hundred and fifty; perhaps half the latter number of generic 
names may be eligible. The birds appear to fall naturally into two groups; one of 
these, Phothornithine, representing about one-tenth of the whole, is composed 


184 TROCHILIDZ, HUMMINGBIRDS. —GEN. 119, 120, 121, 122. 


of duller colored species especially inhabiting the dense forests of the Amazon; 
the other is the 


Subfamily TROCHILINA. 


119. Genus HELIOPAIDICA Gould. 


Xantus Hummingbird. Tarsi feathered; tail nearly even; first primary 
not attenuate ; frontal feathers ending abruptly at base of bill; g above, and 
the throat, metallic grass-green ; below, cinnamon-rufous ; face blue-black ; 
a white stripe through the eye; wings purplish-dusky ; tail purplish-chest- 
nut, the central feathers glossed with golden green ; bill flesh-colored, black- 
tipped. 9 shining green above, including central tail feathers; below, and 
the face, pale rufous, whitening about the vent, and the sides greenish; 
head-stripes rufous, whitening on the auriculars; tail feathers, except the 
central, chestnut, with a dark terminal spot. 34; wing 24; tail 14; bill #. 
Cape St. Lucas. Amazilia xantusii and Heliopedica castaneicauda Lawr., 
Aun. Lye. N. Y. 1860, pp. 105, 109; Exu., pl. 22; Coop., 365. XANTUSIT. 


120. Genus LAMPORNIS Swainson. 


Black-throated Hummingbird. Tomia serrate near the end; bill depressed, 
not quite straight; no metallic scales on throat; g golden-green above and 
on the sides; below, opaque black, with white flank-tufts; wings and tail 
dusky-purplish. 9 white below, with median black stripe. 44; wing 23; 
tail 1#; bill nearly 1. Straggler to Florida. Bp., 130,922. . MANGO? 


121. Genus TROCHILUS Linnzus. 


Ruby-throated Hummingbird. gf with the tail forked, its feathers all 
narrow and pointed; no scales on crown; metallic gorget reflecting ruby- 
red, etc.; golden-green, below white, the sides green; wings and tail 
dusky-purplish. ¢ lacking the gorget ; the throat white ; the tail somewhat 
double-rounded, with black bars, and the outer feathers white-tipped. 34; 
wing 13; tail 14; bill 3. Eastern North America, abundant in summer, 
generally seen hovering about flowers, sometimes in flocks. Feeds on insects, 
and the sweets of flowers. Nest a beautiful structure, of downy substances, 
stuccoed with lichens outside; eggs two, white. Wus., ii, 26, pl. 10; 
Nutt., i, 588; Avup., iv, 190, pl. 253; Bp., 131. 3 ~~ 29.) "@@nieae 

Black-chinned Hummingbird. Similar; tail merely emarginate; gorget 
opaque black, reflecting steel blue, etc., posteriorly. with the tail simply 
rounded. California, Arizona and southward. Cass., Il. 141, pl. 22; Bo., 
133; Coop.,358. 0.6% . os Se ee 


122. Genus SELASPHORUS Swainson. 
* No metallic scales on crown; ¢ throat scales not much prolonged into a ruff; 
outer primary attenuate; tail graduated, the middle feathers broader than the 
Tateral. 


TROCHILIDE, HUMMINGBIRDS. —GEN. 122, 123. 185 


Rufous-backed Hummingbird. & chiefly cinnamon-rufous above, below 
and on the tail; traces of green above, especially on crown; gorget red, 
ete. ; a white collar behind it. 9 with a trace of the gorget; upper parts 
more or less green; tail barred with black and tipped with white. 34; 
wing 13; tail 14. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, from Mexico to Alaska ; 
abundant; the sole boreal a ne of the poe Aup., iv, 200, pl. 
gees p., 134; Coorp., 355. . . . me 7.) BULUS. 

ivad-tailed Hummingbird. Outer primaries Peatoht attenuated, outer 
tail feather linear, very narrow; others broad; ¢ glittering green, with 
much white below, the gorget purplish-red, ete.; wings and tail dusky- 
purplish, most of the tail feathers with rufous edging basally. 9 with no 
gorget; no green, but much rufous, below; 4; wing 2. Rocky Mts. to lat. 
42° ; W. to Sierra Nevada; S. into Mex. Bp., 135; Coor., 357. PLATYCERCUS. 

** Crown of ¢ with metallic scales like the gorget, which is prolonged into.a ruff; 
outer primary not attenuate; tail of g forked, the outer feather abruptly narrow 
and linear. (Caiypte.) 

Anna Hummingbird. § above, and the breast, green; crown and gor- 
get ruby-red, etc.; @ lacking the scales; the tail slightly rounded, black- 
barred, white-tipped. Size of the last. California; resident, abundant. Nurt., 
my 2as ed. 712; Avp., iv, 188, pl. 252; Bp., 137; Coop., 358. |. ANNA. 

Costa Hummingbird. f above, and on the sides, green; mostly white 
below; crown and gorget purplish, steel-blue, etc.; the latter much pro- 
longed into a ruff; tail lightly forked; 9 like that of anna; smaller; about 
33; wing under 2; tail 14; bill 3. Valley of the Colorado; S. and Lower 
iMiCest COOP, S00. . . . . . . .« » « « COSTA. 

*** Crown of ¢ not metallic like the gorget, which is prolonged into aruff; outer 
primary of ¢ attenuate ; tail graduated, the feathers rounded at the end, the lateral 
black-barred and white-tipped (in both sexes). (Afthis.) 

Heloise Hummingbird. & golden-green above, including crown; gorget 
lilac-red, bordered with white ; below white; sides with green and rufous ; 
tail feathers cinnamon-rufous at base, the central otherwise like the back, the 
others black-barred and white-tipped ; . similar, lacking the gorget ; outer 
primary not attenuate. Very small; 23; wing 14; tail1; bill}. Texas 
and southward. Exuior, pl. 21; Coop., 361. . . . . . HELOIS&. 


123. Genus STELLULA Gould. 


Calliope Hummingbird. g golden-green; below white, with green and 
rufous on sides ; gorget violet or lilac, the bases of the scales, and sides of 
the neck, pure white ; tail feathers brown, including the central pair, with pale 
tips and slight rufous edgings; under mandible light; 9 with dusky specks 
in place of the gorget; throat feathers not ruffed; no green on sides; tail 
feathers variegated with green, rufous, black and white. 23; wing 13; 
tail 1; bill $. Mountains of Washington, Oregon and California, to 
Mexico. Exzior, pl. 23;- Coor., 363. . . . . ... . « CALLIOPE. 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 24 


186 TROGONIDZ, TROGONS ; MOMOTIDZ, SAWBILLS.—GEN. 124, 125. 


124. Genus AGYRTRIA Cabanis. 

Linné Hummingbird. & bronzy-green, including middle tail feathers ; 
throat and breast grass-green, paler on sides; middle of belly, and crissum, 
white; wings purplish-brown ; lateral tail feathers black with paler tips; 
g duller, more white below, no green on throat; wing 2; tail 14; bill 3. 
South America; accidental in Massachusetts, one instance (Aug. 1865, — 
Brewster) ; but I am advised that the occurrence is open to suspicion. 
ALLEN, Am. Nat. iii, 1869, p. 645; Maynarp, Guide, 128. . LINNzI, 


Suborder CUCULTL. COuculiform Birds. 


The nature of this large group has been indicated on a preceding page (178). 


Family TROGONIDA. Trogons. 

Feet zygodactyle by reversion of the second toe. ‘The base of the short, broad, 
dentate bill is hidden by appressed antrorse feathers; the wings are short and 
rounded, with faleate quills; the tail is long, of twelve broad feathers; the feet 
are very small and weak. The general plumage is soft and lax, the skin tender, 
the eyelids lashed. A well-marked family of about fifty species and perhaps a 
dozen genera, chiefly inhabiting tropical America. They are of gorgeous colors, 
and among them are found the most magnificent birds of 
this continent. 


125. Genus TROGON Auctorum, 


Mexican Trogon. Metallic golden-green; face and 
sides of head black; below from the breast carmine ; 
a white collar on the throat; middle tail feathers . 
; coppery-green, the outer white, barred with black ; 
Fig. 120, Mexican Trogon. quills edged with white; about 11; wing 54; tail 6%. 
Valley of the Rio Grande, southward. LBop., 69, pl. 40. . . MpxIcANUS? 


Family MOMOTIDA:. Sawhbills. 


Feet syndactyle by cohesion of third and fourth toes; tomia serrate. A very small 
family of tropical American birds, 
comprising about fifteen species. 
Neither this nor the foregoing has 
really rightful place here, but they 
come on our border, and are in- 
cluded to illustrate the suborder. 
In the following species, the central 
tail feathers are long-exserted, and 
spatulate by absence of webs along 
a part of the shaft—a mutilation 
effected, it is said, by the birds 
themselves; the bill is about’ as 
long as the head, gently curved ; 
the nostrils are rounded, basal, exposed; the wings are short and rounded; the 
tarsi are scutellate anteriorly. 


Fic. 121. Blue-headed Sawhbill. 


ALCEDINIDZ, KINGFISHERS. —GEN. 112. 187 


112, Genus,MOMOTUS Lesson. 


Blue-headed Sawbill. Greenish, rather paler below; purer on wings and 
tail; the crested crown blue, encircled with black; face mostly black. 15; 
wing 54. Mexico. Bp., 161, pl.46. . . . . . . . CM#RULEICEPS. 


Family ALCEDINIDA. Kingfishers. 


Feet syndactyle by cohesion of third and fourth toes; tomia simple. Bill long, 
large, straight, acute (rarely hooked), “ fissirostral,” the gape being deep and wide ; 
tongue rudimentary or very small; nostrils basal, 
reached by the frontal feathers. Feet very small and 
weak, scarcely or not ambulatorial; tarsi extremely 
short, reticulate in front; hallux short, flattened 
underneath, its sole more or less continuous with the 
sole of the inner toe; soles of outer and middle toe 
in common for at least half their length; inner toe 
always short, in one genus rudimentary, in another wanting (an abnormal modifica- 
tion, overlooked in penning § 86, p. 49 ; but see § 84) ; wings long, of 10 primaries ; 
tail of 12 rectrices, variable in shape. 

“The kingfishers form a very natural family of the great Picarian order, and are. 
alike remarkable for their brilliant coloration- and for the variety of curious and 
aberrant forms which are included within their number. . . ‘Their characteristic 
habit is to sit motionless watching for their prey, to dart after it and seize it on 
the wing, and to return to their original position to swallow it. . . The Alced- 
inide nest in holes and lay white eggs. It is, however, to be remarked that, in 
accordance with a modification of the habits of the various genera, a corresponding 

‘modification has taken place in the mode of nidification, the piscivorous section 
of the family nesting for the most part in holes in the banks of streams, while the 
insectivorous section of the family generally nest in the holes of trees, not neces- 
sarily in the vicinity of water.” (SuHarpre.) 

The nearest allies of the kingfishers are considered to be the hornbills and bee- 
eaters of the Old World, and the sawbills and todies of the New. One would gain 
an imperfect or erroneous idea of the family to judge of it by the American fragment, 
of one genus and six or eight species. According to the author of the splendid 
monograph just cited, there are in all 125 species, belonging to 19 genera; the 
latter appear to be very judiciously handled, but a moderate reduction of the former 
will be required. They are very unequally distributed; Ceryle alone is nearly 
cosmopolitan, absent only from the Australian region; the northern portion of the 
Old World has only 2 peculiar species; 3 genera and 24 species are characteristic 
of the Ethiopian region, one genus and 25 species are confined to the Indian, while 
no less than 10 genera and 59 species are peculiar to the Australian. Mr. Sharpe 
recognizes two subfamilies; in the Dacelonine (with 14 genera, and 84 species) 
the bill is more or less depressed with smooth, rounded or suleate, culmen. In the 


Fic. 122. Syndactyle foot. 


Subfamily ALCEDININ 4, 


the bill is compressed, with carinate culmen. The American species all belong here. 
It is the more particularly piscivorous section; the Dacelonine feed for the most 
part upon insects, reptiles, and land mollusks. 


188 ALCEDINIDZ, KINGFISHERS.—GEN. 113. 


113. Genus CERYLE Boie. 


Belted Kingfisher. Upper parts, broad pectoral bar, and sides under the 
wings, dull blue with fine black shaft lines; lower eyelid, spot before eye, 
a cervical collar and under parts except as 
said, pure white; the 9? with a chestnut 
belly-band, and the sides of the same color ; 
quills and tail feathers black, speckled, 
blotched or barred on the inner webs with 
white ; outer webs of the secondaries and 
tail feathers like the back; wing coverts 
frequently sprinkled with white; bill black, 
pale at base below; feet dark, tibize naked 
below ; a long, thin, pointed occipital crest ; 
plumage compact and oily to resist water, 
into which the birds constantly plunge after 
their finny prey.. Length a foot or more ; 
wing about 6; tail 384; whole foot 14; 
culmen about 24. North America, com- 


Fic. 123. Belted Kingfisher. 9. 


southward by freezing of the waters. Wiuts., iii, 59, pl. 23, f. 1; Nurr., 
i, 594; Awp., iv, 205, pl. 255; Bp., 158. . .«. -. 3020 
Cabanis’ Kingfisher. Glossy green; a cervical collar and the under parts 
white; ¢ with a rufous, 9 with an imperfect, greenish, pectoral bar; quills 
and tail feathers black, partly yee 
like the back, with numerous 
white spots, mostly paired. 
Small; about 8; wing 35; 
tail 24. Valleys of the Rio 
Grande and Colorado, and 
southward. Cass., Ill. 255; Bp., 159, and Mex. Bound. Surv. ii, pl. 7; 
Coop., 339; 1.ecf ees 2 6 s+ he Ue) )6e:)|6U AMERICANA YUP, (OA 


Fic. 124. Cabanis’ Kingfisher. 


Family CUCULIDA. Cuckoos. 


Feet zygodactyle by reversion of the fourth toe. This character, in connection with 
those given below, will answer present purposes ; and in my ignorance of some of the 
exotic forms, I cannot attempt to give a full diagnosis. The family is a large and 
important one. It comprehends quite a number of leading forms showing peculiar 
minor modifications ; these correspond in great measure with certain geographical 
areas of faunal distribution, and are generally held to constitute subfamilies. Three 
or four such are confined to America; about twice as many belong exclusively to the 
Old World; among them are the Cuculine, or typical cuckoos allied to the Euro- 
pean C. canorus, famous, like our cowbird, for its parasitism. This section com- 
prehends the great majority of the Old World species; the Couwine are a peculiar 
Madagascan type; others rest upon a special condition of the claws or plumage. 
There are about two hundred current species of the family. 


mon everywhere, resident or only forced 


CUCULIDH, CUCKOOS.—GEN. 126, 127. 189 


Subfamily CROTOPHAGIN. Anis. 


Tail of eight feathers, graduated, longer than the rounded wings. Bill exceed- 
ingly compressed, the upper mandible rising into a thin vertical crest, the sides 
usually sulcate, the tip deflected. Plumage uniform (black), lustrous, the feathers 
of the head and neck lengthened, lanceolate, distinct, with scale-like margins ; face 
naked. Terrestrial. Nest in bushes. One genus, and two or three species, of the 
warmer parts of America. 


126. Genus CROTOPHAGA [Linneus. 


Ani. About-a foot long; wing 6; tail 8. Florida (and Gulf?) coast, 
southward ; accidental north to Philadelphia. C. ani and C. rugirostris 
eC 8 fe. ert) we ANT. 


Subfamily SAUROTHERIN A. Ground Cuckoos. 

Tail of ten feathers, graduated, longer than the short, rounded, concave wings. 
Bill about as long as the head, compressed, straight at base, tapering, with deflected 
tip, gently curved culmen, and ample rictus. Feet large and strong, in adaptation 
to terrestrial life; tarsus longer than the toes, scutellate before and behind. One 
West Indian genus, Sauvrophaga, with three or four species, and the following, 
- with one or two :— 


-127. Genus GEOCOCCYX Wagler. 

Ground Cuckoo. Chaparral Cock. Road Runner. Snake Willer. 
Paisano. Most of the feathers of the head and neck bristle-tipped ; a naked 
area around eye; crown crested; plumage coarse. Above, lustrous bronzy 
green, the crest dark blue, everywhere sharply 
streaked with whitish or tawny brown; sides and 
front of the neck tawny, with sharp black streaks ; 
other under parts dirty white; quills and _ tail 
feathers much edged with white; central rectrices 
like the back, others darker green, violet, etc., with 
broad white tips. Nearly 2 feet long; tail a foot or 
more; wing 6-7 inches; tarsus 2; Dill 1%. Sexes 
nearly alike. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Cali- { 
fornia and southward. A bird of remarkable 
aspect, noted for its swiftness of foot; aided by its wings held as outriggers, 
it taxes the horse in a race; feeds on reptiles, insects and land mollusks. 
Cass., Ill. 213, pl. 36; Bp., 73; Coor., 363. . . . . CALIFORNIANUS. 


Fic. 125. Ground Cuckoo. 


Subfamily COCCYZINA. American Cuckoos. 


Tail of ten soft feathers, much graduated, little longer than the wings, which 
are somewhat pointed, although the first and second quills are shortened. Bill 
about equalling or rather shorter than the head, stout at base, then much compressed, 
curved throughout, tapering to a rather acute tip; nostrils basal, inferior, exposed, 
elliptical; feet comparatively small, the tarsus naked, not longer than the toes. 


190 CUCULIDZ, CUCKOOS.—GEN. 128. 


Four or five genera, and perhaps twenty species; none parasitic. Ours are strictly 
arboricole birds of lithe form, blended plumage and subdued colors; the head is 
not crested; the tibial feathers are full, as in a hawk; the sexes are alike, and the 
young scarcely different. In the following, the upper parts are uniform satiny 
olive-gray, or ‘‘ quaker color,” with bronzy reflections. Migratory, insectivorous ; 
lay plain greenish eggs, in a rude nest of twigs saddled on a branch or in a fork. 
They are well known inhabitants of our streets and parks as well as of woodland, 
noted for their loud jerky cries, which they are supposed AG utter most frequently in 
falling weather, whence their popular name, ‘rain crow.’ fe 


128. Genus COCCYZUS Vieillot. 


Black-billed Cuckoo. Bill blackish except occasionally a trace of yellow- 
ish below. Below, pure white, sometimes with a faint tawny tinge on the 
fore parts. Wings with little or no rufous. Lateral tail feathers not con- 
trasting with the central, their tips for a short distance blackish, then 
obscurely white. Bare circumocular space red. Length 11-12; wing 5-54 ; 
tail 6-64; bill under an inch. Eastern U.S. and Canada. Wizs., iv, 16, pl. 
28; Nurr., i, 556; Aup., iv, 300, pl. 276; Bp., 77. ERYTHROPHTHALMUS. 

7ellow-billed Cuckoo. Bill extensively yellow below and on the sides. 
Below, pure white. Wings extensively cinnamon-rufous on inner webs of 
the quills. Central tail feathers 
like the back, the rest black with 
large white tips, the outermost 
usually also edged with white. Size 
of the last. United States, rather 
more southerly than the last species, 
and chiefly Eastern; also, Pacific 
Coast (Cooper, Nuttall). Wus., 
iv, 13, pl. 28; Nwornl, (eee 
Aup., iv, 293, pl. 275; Bpoies 
Coop., 371. . .. . AMBRICANINE: 

Mangrove Cuckoo. Bill much as 
in the last. Below, pale orange- 
brown. Auriculars dark, in contrast. Tail as in the last, but outer feathers 
not white-edged. Size of the others, or rather less. West Indies and 
Florida. Nurt., i, 558; Aup., iv, 303; pl. 277; Bp., 78. . sENIOULUS. 


Fic. 126. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. 


Suborder PICI. Piciform Birds. 


See p. 179 for characters of this suborder. 


Family PICIDA:. Woodpeckers. 


These birds have been specially studied, with more or less gratifying success, by - 
Malherbe, Sundevall and Cassin. There are nearly two hundred and fifty well 
determined species, of all parts of the world except Madagascar, Australia and 
Polynesia. Their separation into minor groups has not been agreed upon; our 


PICIDE, WOODPECKERS. 191 


species are commonly thrown into three divisions, which, however, I shall not 
present. The ivory-bill and the flicker stand nearly at extremes of the family, the 
little diversity of which is thereby evident. One of our genera, without very 
obvious external peculiarities, stands apart from the rest in the character. of the 
tongue—a fact that seems to have escaped general attention. In ordinary Pici the 
“horns” of the tongue are extraordinarily produced backward, as slender jointed 
bony rods curling up over the skull behind, between the skin and the bone, to the 
eyes or even further; these rods are enwrapped in highly developed, specialized 
muscles, by means of which the birds thrust out the tongue sometimes several 
inches beyond the bill. This is not the case in Sphyrapicus, where the hyoid 
cornua do not extend beyond the base of the skull, and the tongue, consequently, is 
but little more extensible than in ordinary birds. I have determined this by 
examination of all our species but one, in the flesh. The tongue of Sphyrapicus 
is beset at the end by numerous brushy filaments, instead of the few acute barbs 
commonly observed in the family. (See also under gen. 133.) In most of our 
species the bill is perfectly straight, wide and stout at the base, tapering regularly 
to a compressed and vertically truncate tip, chisel-like, and strengthened by sharp 
ridges on the side of the upper mandible — an admirable tool for cutting into trees ; 
and in all such, the nostrils are hidden by dense tufts of antrorse feathers. In 
others, like the flicker, the bill is smooth, barely curved, the tip acute and the 
nostrils exposed. The claws are always large, strong, sharp and much curved; the 
feet do not present striking modifications, except in the three-toed genus Picoides. 
_ The wings offer nothing specially noteworthy, unless it be the shortness of the 
coyerts, in exception to the Picarian rule; and the shortness of the first primary, 
which may fairly be called spurious. The remarkable character of the tail has been 
already mentioned. This member offers indispensable assistance in climbing, 
when the stiff strong quills are pressed against the tree, and form a secure support 
To this end, the muscles are highly developed, and the last bone (vomer or pygostyle) 
is large and peculiar in shape. Woodpeckers rarely if ever hang head downward, 
like Nuthatches, nor are the tarsi applied to their support. 

Species are abundant in all the wooded portion of this country, and wherever 
found are nearly resident. For, although insectivorous, they feed principally upon 
dormant or at least stationary insects, and therefore need not migrate; they are, 
moreover, hardy birds. They dig insects and their larve out of trees, and are eminently 
beneficial to the agriculturist and fruit grower. Contrary to a prevalent impression, 
their boring does not seem to injure fruit trees, which may be riddled with holes 
without harmful result. The number of noxious insects these birds destroy is simply 

-inealeulable ; what little fruit some of them steal is not to be mentioned in the same 
connection, and they deserve the good will of all. The birds of the genus Sphy- 
rapicus are probably an exception to most of these statements. Woodpeckers nest 
in holes in trees, which they excavate ‘for themselves, sometimes to a great depth, 
and lay numerous rounded pure white eggs, of which the shell has a crystalline 
texture, on the chips and dust at the bottom of the hole. The voice is loud and 
harsh, susceptible of little inflection. The plumage as a rule presents bright colors 
in large areas or in striking contrasts, and is sometimes highly lustrous. The sexes 
are ordinarily distinguishable by color-markings. : 

Oxs. Campephilus imperialis, the largest and most magnificent bird of the 
family, inhabiting Central America, has been attributed to the United States, but 
upon unsatisfactory evidence. (Aup., iv, 213; Cass., 285, pl. 49; Bop., 82.) 
Dryocopus lineatus, likewise, was improperly introduced by Audubon (iv, 233). 


192 PICIDH, WOODPECKERS. —GEN. 129, 130, 131. ‘ 


129. Genus CAMPEPHILUS Gray. 


Ivory-billed Woodpecker. Black; a stripe down the side of the neck, one 
at base of bill, the scapulars, under wing coverts, and ends of secondaries, 

» white; bill and nasal feathers white; ¢ scarlet-crested ; 
4 ° black-crested. A large, powerful bird of the South 
¥ Atlantic and Gulf States; about 21 long; wing 10-11; 
tail 7-8. . Wits., iv, 20, pl. 39,-£-6; Nuorry ieeoaee 
Aup., iv, 214, pl. 256; Bp., 81. . . 3 PRENCEPATIE: 


130. Genus HYLOTOMUS Baird. 


si (NS Pileated Woodpecker. Black; the head, neck and 
ic. 27. Ivory-bitea Wings much varied with white or pale yellowish ; bill dark ; 

Woodpecker, $ scarlet-crested, scarlet-moustached; ¢ with the crest 
half black, half scarlet, and no maxillary patches. Only yielding to the 
ivory-bill in size; length 15-19; 
wing 83-10; tail 6-7. North 
America, anywhere, in heavy tim- 
ber! “Wimsaeav, 127,qple 205 fis 
Nurr., 1,567; AuD:; ivy 226, pl. 
250: “Bplot. |). Pe iLnAruUs: 


Fr 


131. Genus PICUS Linneus. 

*.* All the following species are 
black-and-white, the ¢ with red on the head; and all but the first have numerous, 
small, round, white spots on the quills. 

* Body not banded, streaked, nor spotted. 


Fic. 128. Pileated Woodpecker. 


White-headed Woodpecker. Uniform black ; whole head white, in the ¢ 
with a scarlet nuchal band; a large patch of white on the wing, commonly 
resolved into a number of blotches; about 9; wing 5; tail 33. Mountains 
of California, Oregon and Washington. Cass., Journ. Phila. Acad. 1853, 
257, pl.-22; Bp., 963. Hota 
Coop., 382... . .! ALBOLARVAmee 

** Spotted and crosswise banded, but not 
streaked. 

Med-cockaded Woodpecker. Wead black 
on top, with a large silky white auricular 
patch embracing the eye and extending 
on the side of the neck, bordered above 
in the ¢ by a scarlet stripe not meeting 
its fellow on the nape; nasal feathers and 
those on the side of the under jaw white ; 
black of the crown connected across the 
lores with a black stripe running from the corner of the bill down the side 
of the throat and neck to be dissipated on the side of the breast in black 


Fig. 129. Red-cockaded Woodpecker. 


PICID#, WOODPECKERS. —GEN. 131. 193 


spots continued less thickly along the whole side and on the crissum; under 
parts otherwise soiled white; central tail feathers black, others white, black- 
barred ; back and wings barred with black and white, the larger quills and 
* many coverts with the white bars resolved into paired spots; 8-84; extent 
14-15; wing 44; tail 34. Pine swamps and barrens of the South Atlantic 
and Gulf States; North to Pennsylvania. Whuts., ii, 103, pl. 15; Nurr., 
Beet; AUD., iv, 254, pl. 264; Bp., 96. . . Te BOREALIS. 

Texan Woodpecker. Crown black, frequeutly peaked with white, in the 
@ the hind head and nape extensively crimson; sides of the head white, 
with a long black stripe from the bill under the eye, widening behind, there 
joining a black postocular stripe and spreading over the side of the neck; 
nasal feathers usually brown; under parts ranging from soiled white to 
smoky gray, with numerous black spots on the ‘sides, flanks and crissum ; 
lateral tail feathers perfectly barred with black and white in equal amounts, 
the central ones black ; back and wings as in the last species. Small; about 
7; wing 33-4; tail under 3; bill 3-§. Southwestern U. S. and southward. 
(07-0 07.09 (-B 


Var. Nutratitu. Rather larger; more white, this rather prevailing on the back 
oyer the black bars, the hind neck chiefly white, the nasal tufts white, the lateral 
tail feathers, especially, sparsely or imperfectly barred. The Californian coast 
race; Bp., 93; Coor., 378. Picus lucasanus, from Cape St. Lucas, is a local form 
like nuttallii, with rather larger bill and feet; bill 1 inch. Xanrus, Proc. Phila. 
Acad. 1859, 298, 302; Cass., ibid. 1863, 195; Coop., 381. P. parvus CasBot; 

P. bairdii Scrater; PP. vagatus and orizabe Casstn, all belong to scalaris. 

*** Spotted and lengthwise streaked, but not banded. 


7 Usually 9-10 long ; outer tail feathers wholly white. 


Hairy Woodpecker. Back black, with a long white stripe; quills and 
wing coverts with a profusion of white spots; four middle tail feathers black, 
next pair black and white, next two pair white, as stated ; under parts white ; 
crown and sides of head black, with a white stripe over and behind the eye, 
another from the nasal feathers running below the eye to spread on the side 
of the neck, anda scarlet nuchal band in the ¢ , wanting in the 9 ; young 
with the crown mostly red or bronzy, or even yellowish. Eastern North 
America, abundant. Wing nearly 5; tail 34; bill 1; whole foot 13. Varies 
greatly in size, mainly according to latitude. Large whiter northern birds 
are— PP. leucomelas Bopp., Pl. Enlum. 345, f. 1; P. canadensis Gm., i. 
437; P. phillipsii Avun., iv, 238, pl. 259 (young with crown yellowish) ; 
P. septentrionalis Nurr., i, 2d ed. 684 (same); var. major Bop., 84. 
Ordinary birds are — P. villosus Wits., i, 150, pl. 9; Nurr., i, 575; Aup., 
iv, 244, pl. 262; P. martine Aun., iv, 240, pl. 260 (young with crown 
reddish) ; P. rubricapillus Nurrt., i, 2d ed. 685 (same) ; var. medius Bo., 
84. Small southern birds are— P. auduboni Swainson, Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 
806; P. auduboni Truveav, Journ. Phila. Acad. 1837, 404 (young with 
crown yellowish); Avup., iv, 259, pl. 265; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 684; var. 
ee eects 6s oe Se se )=© WILLOSUS. 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 25 


194 PICIDZ, WOODPECKERS.— GEN. 132, 133. 


Var. nARRIsu. Exactly like villosus, excepting fewer wing-spots ; generally none 
on the coverts and inner quills ; with specimens enough we can see the spots disap- 
pear one by one. Generally white below, but in some regions smoky-gray (a thing 
not observed in Eastern birds, but apparently due, sometimes at least, to soiling 
: with carbonaceous matter). Rocky Mountains 
to the Pacific. Avup., iv, 242, pl. 261 (dark- 
bellied) ; Nutr.,i, 2d ed. 627; Bp., 87; Coopr., 
375. P. hyloscopus CaBAnis. 

tt Usually 6-7 long ; outer tail feathers barred 
with black and white. 

Downy Woodpecker. Exactly like P. 
villosus, except in the above respects; wing 
under 4; tail under 3; bill about %; whole 
foot 14. Eastern North America, abundant in orchards, and all wooded 
places.” “Wirs.,'i, 153, pl. 9; Nurr., i, 576; Aup., iv, 249, plo 260;8GmR, 
89. P. meridionalis Swarns., F. B.-A. ii, 308 (small southern race) ; 
P. mediayius Ip., ibid. 308. . 5 3 ot ee 

Var. GAIRDNERI. Bearing the same relation to P. pubescens, that harrisii does to 
P. villosus, and inhabiting the same regions; the wing spots few or wanting on the 
inner quills and the coverts, the belly smoky-gray in some localities. Aup., iv, 
252; Bp., 91, pl. 85; Coop., 377. P. meridionalis Nutr., i, 2d ed. 690. 


132. Genus PICOIDES lacepede. 


*,* Three-toed; the hallux absent. Crown with a yellow patch in the @ ; 
sides of head striped, of body barred, with black and white ; under parts otherwise 
white ; quills with white spots; tail feathers unbarred, the outer white, the central 
black. Length 8-9; wing 43-5; tail 33-4. 

Black-backed Woodpecker. Back uniform black. Arctic America to the 
Northern States. Avp., iv, 266, pl. 268; Nurt., i, 578; Bp., 98; Coopr., 
384. P. tridactylus Bonar., Am. Orn. ii, 14, pl. 14, f. 2.  . ARcericus. 

Banded Woodpecker. Back with a white lengthwise stripe, banded with 
black tips of the feathers. Arctic America into Northern States. P. hir-. 
sutus AUD., iv, 268, pl. 269; Nurt., i, 2d ed. 622; Bp., 98; P. tridactylus 
Swains., F. B.-A. ii, 311, pl. 56; P. americanus Coor., 385. AMERICANUS. 


Var. porsaLis. Back with an uninterrupted white stripe; Bp., 100, pl. 85, f. 1. 
Rocky Mountain region. *,* All the species of this genus are unquestionably 
modified derivatives of one circumpolar stock ; the American seem to have become 
completely differentiated from the Asiatic and European, and further divergence 
seems to have perfectly separated arcticus from americanus; but dorsalis and 
americanus are still linked together. 


133. Genus SPHYRAPICUS Baird. 


*.* Tongue not extensible; the tip brushy; hyoid bones short. Birds of this 
genus feed much upon fruits, as well as insects, and also, it would seem, upon soft 
inner bark (cambium) ; they injure fruit trees by stripping off the bark, sometimes 
in large areas, instead of simply boring holes. Of the several small species com- 
monly called *‘ sapsuckers,” they alone deserve the name. In declaring war against 


PICIDE, WOODPECKERS. —GEN. 133. ) 195 


SS 


woodpeckers, the agriculturist will do well to discriminate between the somewhat 
injurious and the highly beneficial species. 


Yellow-bellied Woodpecker. & with the crown crimson, bordered all 
around with black; chin, throat and breast black, enclosing a large crimson 
patch on the former (in the ¢ ; in the ¢@ this patch white); sides of head 
with a white line starting from the 
nasal feathers and dividing the * 
black of the throat from a trans- 
ocular black stripe, this separated 
from the black of the crown by a 
white postocular stripe; all these 
stripes frequently yellowish; 
under parts dingy yellow, brown- 
ish and with sagittate dusky marks 
on the sides; back variegated with 
black and yellowish-brown ; wings 
black with a large oblique white 
bar on the coverts, the quills with 
numerous paired white spots on 
the edge of both webs; tail black, most of the feathers white-edged, the 
inner webs of the middle pair, and the upper coverts, mostly white. Young 
birds lack the definite black areas of the head and breast, and the crimson 
throat-patch, these parts being mottled gray; but in any plumage the bird 
is recognized by its yellowness, different from what is seen in any other 
Eastern species, and the broad white wing-bar, to say nothing of the generic 
characters. About 84; wing 44-5; tail 33. Eastern North America, 
abundant. Wits., i, 147, pl. 9, f. 2; Nurr., i, 574; Aup., iv, 263, pl.. 
tee Si. we ee lw es ©6LVARIUS. 

Var. Nucwais. With an additional band of scarlet on the nape, and the throat- 
patch more extensive; it is often seen in the 9. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, 
but apparently not exclusively western; I am informed that’ birds of this descrip- 
tion are found in New England. Bp., 103, 897; Coop., 390. 

Red-breasted Woodpecker. Exactly like the last, but the whole head, 
neck and breast carmine red, in both sexes; gray in the young. Size of 
the last, with which it is said to intergrade, and of which it is apparently 
only a variety. Pacific Coast, U.S. Avp., iv, 261, pl. 266; Bp., 104; 
ie | ed ies ot RUBER. 

Brown-headed Woodpecker. General plumage closely banded with black 
and grayish-white ; rump white; middle of belly yellow, of breast black ; 
whole head nearly uniform brown; quills sprinkled with white along the 
edges; tail black with the middle feathers white-barred ; 9-94; wing 5 or 
more; tail 4 or less. Wooded mountainous regions, Pacific slope. Cass., 
Ill. 200, pl. 32; Bp., 106; Extior, pl. 25; Coop., 393. . THYROIDEUS. 

Williamson's Woodpecker. Glossy black; sides and crissum mixed black 
and white; belly yellow; rump white; tail black, unmarked; wings black, 


Fic. 131. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker. 


= ee ee Sal So OUT T UP ™s 
— hs FWA AN © ie |) » 
—— I" < \ 


196 PICIDZ, WOODPECKERS.—GEN. 134, 135. 


with a large oblique white bar on the coverts, aud a few white spots on the 
edges of the quills; throat with a narrow crimson patch (white in the @ ?) ; 
head with a white postocular stripe meeting its fellow on the nape, and 
another from the nasal feathers to below the auriculars; size of the last. 
Same habitat. A beautiful species ; this, and hyroideus, resemble no others. 
Bp., 105; Coop., 393. 3... 2° 5 a a dy a 


134. Genus CENTURUS Swainson. 


*,* Back and wings, except larger quills, closely banded with black and white ; 
primaries with large white blotches near the base, and usually a few smaller spots ; 
below, immaculate, except sagittate black marks on the flanks and crissum; the 


belly tinged with red or yellow ; 9-10 long; wing about 5; tail about 33. 


fted-bellied Woodpecker. Whole crown and nape scarlet in the g , partly 
so in the 9 ; sides of head and under parts grayish-white, usually with a 
yellow shade, reddening on the belly ; tail black, one or two outer feathers 
w hite-barred ; inner web of central feathers white with black spots, outer 
web of the same black with a white space next the shaft for most of its 
length; white predominating on the rump. Eastern United States, some- 
what southerly, rarely N. to New England; common. Wi1s., i, 113, pl. 7, 
f. 2; Nurr., i, 572; Avp., iv, 270, pl. 270; Bp., 109. . . ‘GaRGaE 

Yellow-faced Woodpecker. Extreme forehead and a nuchal band yellow; 
crown with a central square crimson patch, wanting in the 9 ; rump and 
upper tail coverts entirely white; tail feathers entirely black, except white 
touches on the outer pair; lower parts sordid whitish, becoming yellow on 
the belly. Texas, southward. C. flaviventris Bp., 110, pl. 42; P. aurifrons, 
W acer, Isis, 1829, 512; Coop.,399.. . °°. .  .. « « « See 

Gila Woodpecker. No yellow about the head; crown with a square crim- 
son patch, wanting in the g ; rump and upper tail coverts barred with black ; 
tail feathers marked as in carolinus; head and under parts dull brown, 
becoming yellow on the belly. Valley of the Colorado and Gila. Bp., 111; 
Coor., S98: 1 ees. 8 a Re ee AS” Sak el ee 


135. Genus MELANERPES Swainson. 

fted-headed Woodpecker. Glossy blue-black; rump, secondaries and 
under parts from the breast, pure white; primaries and tail feathers black; 
whole head, neck and breast crimson, in both sexes, grayish-brown in the 
young; about 9; wing 53; tail 34.. Eastern U.S. to the Rocky Mountains ; 
Calitornia? A very abundant and familiar bird, in orchards and gardens as 
well as in the woods, conspicuous by its gay tricolor plumage; migratory in 
northerly sections. Wiuts., i, 142, pl. 9, f.1; Nurr., i, p. —; Avb., iv, 
274, pl. 271; Bp., 113; Coop., 402. . . . . . EBYTHROCEPAAmEE: 

Californian Woodpecker. Glossy blue-black; rump, bases of all the 
quills, edge of the wing, and under parts from the breast, white, the sides 
with sparse black streaks ; forehead squarely white, continuous with a stripe 
down in front of the eyes and thence broadly encircling the throat, there 


CAWV 5 


14,Stumella ludoviciana, 5-6, Colaptes auratus. 


- 


PI 


PICIDH, WOODPECKERS.—GEN. 136, 137. 197 


becoming yellowish; this cuts off the black around base of bill and on the 
chin completely ; crown in the ¢ crimson from the white front, in the 9 
separated from the white by a black interval; frequently a few red feathers 
in the black breast-patch, which is not sharply defined behind, but changes 
by streaks into the white of the belly. Bill black; eyes white, brown in the 
young, which are not particularly different, but have the head markings less 
defined. Size of the last. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U. S., abund- 
ant; noted for its habit of sticking acorns in little holes that it digs in the 
bark for the purpose ; whole branches are frequently studded in this manner. 
eee tl Hw, pl. 2; Bp., 114; Coor., 403. . . . . . FORMICIVORUS. 

Var. ANGUSTIFRONS is said to have the white frontal bar narrower and the bill 
somewhat differently shaped. Cape St. Lucas. Coop., 405. 


136. Genus ASYNDESMUS Coues. 
Lewis’ Woodpecker. Black, with bronzy-green iridescence; wings and 
tail the same, unmarked; face and sides of head dusky crimson; cervical 
collar and under parts hoary-ash, becoming crimson or bloody-red on the 


-belly ; the feathers of these parts of a peculiar loose bristly texture; sexes 


alike ; young plainer black above, with little or no crimson on face or below. 
About 11 long; wing 64; tail 45. Wooded and especially mountainous 
parts of Western America; a remarkable looking bird. Wius., iii, 31, 
err. 1, 2¢¢; Aup., iv, 280, pl. 272; Bp., 115; Cours, Proc. 
puemmend. 1600, 96; Coorp., 406. . .. . ... . +. #=‘QTORQUATUS. 


137. Genus COLAPTES Swainson. 

* .* Under parts with numerous circular black spots on a pale ground. A large 
black pectoral crescent. Rump snowy white. Back, wing coverts and innermost 
quills brown with an olive or lilac shade, and 
thickly barred with black; quills and tail black, 
excepting as below stated. About a foot long ; 
wing about 6; tail 43. 

Golden-winged Woodpecker. Flicker. 
Wings and tail showing golden-yellow 
underneath, and the shafts of this color; a 
scarlet nuchal crescent in both sexes; ¢ 
with black maxillary patches, wanting in the 
@ ; crown and nape ash; chin, throat and 
breast lilac-brown ; sides tinged with creamy 
brown, and belly with yellowish; shade of 
the back rather olivaceous. Eastern North 
America; Alaska (Dall). A very abundant 
and well known bird. Wits., i, 45, pl. 3, 
f. 1; Nutr., i 561; Aup., iv, 282, pl. Fig. 132, Golden-winged Woodpecker. 
zia; Bo., 118. Pe 3 ' AURATUS. 


Gilded Woodpecker. Wings and tail showing golden yellow underneath, 


ees a i 


198 PSITTACI, PARROTS. 


and the shafts of this color; no nuchal crescent in either sex; g with 
scarlet maxillary patches, wanting in the @ ; crown lilac-brown; chin, throat 
and breast ash; sides tinged with creamy-brown, and belly with yellowish. 
Colorado Valley, Lower California, and southward. Bp., 125, and Proe. 
Phila. Acad. 1859, 302; Exuior, pl. 26; Coop., 410. . . CHRYSOIDES. 

Lied-shafted or Mexican Woodpecker. Wings and tail showing orange-red 
underneath, and the shafts of this color; no nuchal crescent in either sex ; 
&é with scarlet maxillary patches, wanting in the @ ; crown lilac-brown; 
chin, throat and breast ash; under parts shaded with lilac-brown; no 
yellowish on the belly. Western North America, Sitka to Mexico. Avup., 
iv, 290, pl. 274; Nurt., ii, 603; Bp., 120; Coop., 408. . MEXICANUS. 


Oxs. It will be noted, how curiously these species are distinguished mainly by 
a different combination of common characters.— Colaptes ayresii of Aup., vii, 348, 
pl. 494; C. hybridus of Barrp, 122, is a form from the Missouri region in which the 
characters of mexicanus and auratus are blended in every conceivable degree in 
different specimens. Perhaps it is a hybrid, and perhaps it is a transitional form. 
According to Mr. Allen, Florida specimens of awratus sometimes show red touches 
in the black maxillary patch, as is frequently the case with Kansas examples. 


Order PSITTACI. Parrots. 


Feet permanently zygodactyle by reversion of the fourth toe; bill short, 
extremely stout, strongly epignathous, and furnished with a (frequently feathered) 
cere, as in the birds of prey; wings and tail variable. The parrots, including the 
macaws, cockatoos, lories, etc., form one of the most strongly marked groups of 
birds, as easily recognizable by their peculiar external appearance as defined by the 
technical points of structure. They were formerly included in an order Scansores 
on account of the paired toes, but this is a comparatively trivial circumstance ; they 
have no special affinity with other zygodactyle birds, and their peculiarities entitle 
them to rank with groups called orders in the present volume. They might not 
inaptly be styled frugivorous Raptores; and in some respects they exhibit a vague 
analogy to the quadrumana (monkeys) among mammals. The upper mandible is 
much more freely movable than is usual in birds, being articulated instead of 
suturally joined with the forehead; and the bill is commonly used in climbing. 
The bony orbits of the eyes are frequently completed by union of the lachrymal 
bones with postorbital processes. The symphysis of the lower jaw is short and 
obtuse. The sternum is entire or simply fenestrated posteriorly ; the furculum is 
weak, sometimes defective, or wanting. The principal metatarsal bone is short and 
broad, and its lower extremity is modified to suit the position of the fourth toe. 
The lower larynx is peculiariy constructed, with three pairs of muscles. The 
plumage shows aftershafts ; the oil gland is often wanting. 

‘* Parrots abound in all tropical countries, but, except in Australia and New 
Zealand, rarely extend into the temperate zone. The Indian and A®thiopian 
regions are poor in parrots, while the Australian is the richest, containing many 
genera and even whole families peculiar to it” (Newron). The highest author'ty, 
Finscu, recognizes 354 species as well-determined, distributing them in 26 genera; 
142 are American, 23 African, and 18 Asiatic; the Moluccas and-New Guinea have 
83, Australia 59, and Polynesia 29. Ornithologists are now nearly agreed to divide 


“ee 


RAPTORES, BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 138. 199 


them into 5 families. The curious flightless ground-parrot of New Zealand (Stri- 
gops habroptilus) forms one of these, Strigopide. ‘The most highly organized 
group is the Trichoglosside, in which the whole structure is adapted to flower- 
feeding habits” (WaLxace) ; it belongs to the Australian region. The cockatoos 
are familiar examples of a third family, Plictolophide, of Australia and the East 
Indies. The great bulk of the order, however, is made up of the other two less 
specialized and more generally distributed groups, the Psittacide proper, and the 


Family ARIDZA, 


of which the macaws (Ara), and the following species, are characteristic examples. 


138. Gen. CONURUS Kuhl. 


Carolina Parroquet. 
Green; head yellow; face 
red; bill white ; feet flesh 
color ; wings more or less 
variegated with blue and 
yellow. Sexes alike. 
Young simply green. 13; 
wing 74; tail 6. Southern 
States ; up the Mississippi 
Valley to the Missouri 
region; formerly strayed 
to Pennsylvania and New 
York, but of late has 
receded even from the 
Carolinas; still abundant 
in Florida. Gregarious, 
frugivorous and granivorous; not regularly migratory. WItS., ili. 89, pl. 
26, f. 1; Nurr., i, 545; Avup., iv, 306, pl. 278; Bp., 67. CAROLINENSIS. 


Fic. 133. Carolina Parroquet. 


Order RAPTORES. Birds of Prey, 


Bill epignathous, cered; and feet not zygodactyle. The rapacious birds form a 
perfectly natural assemblage, to which this expression furnishes a clue. The 
parrots, probably the only other birds with strongly hooked and truly cered bill, 
are yoke-toed. The Raptores present several osteological and other anatomical 
peculiarities. There are two carotids; the syrinx, when developed, has but one 
pair of intrinsic muscles. The alimentary canal varies with the families, but 
differs from that of vegetarian birds, in adaptation to an exclusively animal diet. 
In the higher types, the whole structure betokens strength, activity and ferocity, 
carnivorous propensities and predaceous nature. Most of the smaller, or weaker, 
species feed much upon insects; others more particularly.upon reptiles, and fish ; 
others upon carrion; but the majority prey upon other birds, and small mammals, 
captured in open warfare. Representatives of the order are found in every part of 
the world. They are divisible into four families. One of these, Gypogeranide, 
consists of the single remarkable species Gypogeranus serpentarius, the secretary- 
bird or serpent-eater of Africa; this shows a curious grallatorial analogy, being 


200 STRIGIDM, OWLS. 


mounted on long legs, like a crane, and has several other more important structural 
modifications. The other three families occur in this country; and the following 
accounts are sufficiently explicit to illustrate the order, without further remark 
in this connection. 


Family STRIGIDA. Owls. 


Head very large, and especially broad from side to side, but shortened length- 
wise, the “face” thus formed further defined by a more or less complete ‘‘ ruff,” or 
circlet of radiating feathers of peculiar texture, on each side. Eyes very large, 
looking more or less directly forward, set in a circlet of radiating bristly feathers, 
and overarched by a superciliary shield. External ears extremely large, often pro- 
vided with an operculum or movable flap, presenting the nearest approach, among 
birds, to the ear-conch of mammals. Bill shaped much as in other ordinary rapa- 
cious birds, but thickly beset at base with close-pressed antrorse bristly feathers. 
Nostrils large, commonly opening at the edge of the cere rather than entirely in its 
substance. Hallux of average length, not obviously elevated in any case; outer 
toe more or less perfectly versatile (but never permanently reversed), and shorter 
than the inner toe. Claws all very long, much curved and extremely sharp, that of 
the middle toe pectinate in some species. As arule, the tarsi are more or less 
completely feathered, and the whole foot is often thus covered. Among numerous 
osteological characters may be mentioned the wide separation of the inner and 
outer tablets of the brain case by intervention of light spongy diploe; the 
commonly 4-notched sternum, and a peculiar structure of the tarso-metatarsus. 
The gullet is capacious but not dilated into a special crop; the gizzard is only 
moderately muscular; the intestines are short and wide; the ceca are extremely 
long and club-shaped. The syrinx has one pair of intrinsic muscles. The feathers 
have no aftershaft, and the general plumage is very soft and blended. 

..lhe Nocturnal Birds of Prey will be immediately recognized by their peculiar 
physiognomy, independently of the technical characters that mark them as a natural, 
sharply defined family. They are a highly monomorphic group, without. extremes 
of aberrant form; but the ease with which they are collectively defined is a measure 
of the difficulty of their rigid subdivision, and the subfamilies are not yet satis- 
factorily determined. Too much stress appears to have been laid upon the trivial, 
although evident, circumstance of presence or absence of the peculiar ear-tufts that 
many species possess: more reliable characters may probably be drawn from the 
structure of the external ear, and facial disk, the modifications of which appear 
_to bear directly upon mode of life, these parts being as a rule most highly developed 
in the more nocturnal species ; while some points of internal structure may yet be 
found correspondent. One group, of which the barn owl, Strix jflammea, is the 
type, seems very distinct in the angular contour and high development of the facial 
disk, pectination of the middle claw, and other characters; and probably the rest 
of the family fall in two other groups; but I do not deem it expedient to present 
subfamilies on this occasion. 

As is well known, owls are eminently nocturnal birds ; but to this rule there are 
numerous striking exceptions. This general habit is correspondent to the modifi- 
cation of the eyes, the size and structure of which enable the birds to see by night, 
and cause them to suffer from the glare of the sunlight. Most species pass the 
daytime secreted in hollow trees, or dense foliage and other dusky retreats, resuming 
their wonted activity after nightfall. Owing to the peculiar texture of the plumage 


STRIGIDZ, OWLS. —GEN. 139. 201 


their flight is perfectly noiseless, like the mincing steps of a cat; and no entirely 
fanciful analogy has been drawn between these birds and the feline carnivora that 
chiefly prey stealthily in the dark. Owls feed entirely upon animal substances, and 
capture their prey alive—small quadrupeds and birds, reptiles and insects, and even 
fish. Like most other Raptores, they eject from the mouth, after a meal, the bones, 
hair, feathers and other indigestible substances, made up into a round pellet. They 
are noted for their loud outcries, so strange and often so lugubrious, that it is no 
wonder that traditional superstition places these dismal night birds in the category 
of things ill-omened. The nest is commonly a rude affair of sticks gathered in the 
various places of diurnal resort; the eggs are several (commonly 3-6), white, sub- 
spherical. The female, as a rule, is larger than the male, but the sexes are alike 
in color; the coloration is commonly blended and diffuse, difficult of concise 
description. 

Owls are among the most completely cosmopolitan of birds; with minor modifi- 
cations according to circumstances, their general habits are much the same the 
world over. A difficulty of correctly estimating the number of species arises from 
the fact that many, especially of the more generalized types, have a wide geograph- 
ical distribution, and, as in nearly all such cases, they split into more or less easily 
recognized races, the interpretation of which is at present a matter of opinion 
rather than a settled issue. About 200 species pass current; this number must be 
reduced by one-third; out of about 50 generic names now in vogue, probably less 
than one-half represent some structural peculiarity. Notable exotic genera are the 
Japanese Phodilus (P. badius), an ally of Strix proper; the Asiatic HKetupa; and 
the extensively distributed Old-World Athene, in its broad acceptation. 


Fic. 134. Foot of Barn Owl. 


139. Genus STRIX Linnezus. 


Barn Owl. Tawny, or fulvous-brown, delicately clouded or marbled with 
ashy and white, and speckled with brownish-black ; below, a varying shade 
from nearly pure white to fulvous, with sparse sharp blackish speckling ; face 
white to purplish-brown, darker or black about the eyes, the disk bordered 
with dark brown; wings and tail barred with brown, and finely mottled like 
the back; bill whitish; toes yellowish. Facial disk highly developed, not 
circular; no tufts; ears very large, operculate; tarsi long, scant-feathered, 
below bristly, like the nearly naked toes; middle claw usually found serrate 
or at least jagged; plumage very downy. 9 17 long; wing 13; tail 53; 
g rather less. U.S., Atlantic to Pacific, southerly ; rare in the interior, 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 26 


‘ 


202 STRIGIDA, OWLS.—GEN. 140, 141. 


rarely N. to New England. WIts., vi, 57, pl. 50, f.2; Novz., 1, 139% same 
i, 127, pl. 84; Cass. in Bo., 47; Coor., 415. | FLAMMEA vir. AMERICANA. 


140. Genus BUBO Cuvier. 


Great Horned Owl. Distinguished by its large size, in connection with 
the conspicuous ear-tufts: the other species of similar dimensions are tuft- 
less. The plumage varies interminably, 
and no concise description will meet all 
its phases; it is a variegation of blackish, 
with dark and light brown, and fulvous. 
A white collar is the most constant color- 
mark. Var. arelicus is the northern bird, 
very light colored, and frequently nearly 
white, like the snowy owl, in arctic speci- 
mens. Var. pacificus is a littoral form, 
very dark colored, with little fulvous, 
“extending from Oregon northward, 
coastwise, to Labrador.” (L?idgway.) 
Facial disks complete; car non-opercu- 
late; feet entirely feathered. Length 
about 2 feet, rather less than more ; wing 
14-16 inches; tail 9-10. This powerful 
bird, only yielding to the great gray owl 
in size, and to none in spirit, is a common 

See inhabitant of North America at large; not 
migratory ; breeds in late winter and early spring months, building a large 
nest of sticks, on the branches or in the hollows of trees; eggs white, 
nearly spherical, 24 by 1%. Whus., vii, 52, pl. 50, f. 1; Notal) ajaaae 
Aup., i, 143, pl. 39; Cass. in Bp., 49; Coor., 418. . .  VIRGINIANUS. 


141. Genus SCOPS Savigny. 


* Toes bristly. 

Screech Owl. Red Owl. Mottled Owl. Like a miniature Budo in form ; 
8 or 10 inches long; wing 6-7; tail 83-34. One plumage :— General aspect 
gray, paler or whitish below, above speckled with blackish, below patched 
with the same; wings and tail dark-barred ; usually a lightish scapular area. 
Another : — General aspect brownish-red, with sharp black streaks; below, 
rufous-white, variegated ; quills and tail with rufous and dark bars. These 
plumages shade insensibly into each other, and it has been determined that 
they bear no definite relations to age, sex, or season. Parallel varia- 
tions occur in some other species. North America at large; one of. the 
most abundant species. Wiuts., iii, 16, pl. 19, f. 1; v, 83, pl. 42, f. 1; 
" Nurr., i, 120; Aup., i, 147, pl. 40; Cass. in Bp.,,51; Coop, 4203eie 


STRIGIDEZ, OWLS.—GEN. 142. 203 


Var. Kennicotru. Large dark north-western form; gencral color sepia-brown, 
mottled and blotched with black; 11; wing 7}; tail4. Alaska to Washington and 
Idaho; three specimens known. Extior, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1867, 69; Ip., pl. 27; 
Bp., Trans. Chicago Acad. 1869, 311; Coopr., 423. 

Var. MaccALti. Small, pale, southern form; size at the minimum above given. 
Southwestern United States. Cass., Ill. 180, and in Bp., 52. 


Fic. 136. Sereech Owl. 


** Toes perfectly naked. 

Flammulated Owl. Above, grayish-brown, obscurely streaked with black, 
and finely speckled with white; below, grayish-white with some rufous 
mottling, each feather with a shaft streak, and several cross-lines, of black ; 
face and ruff varied with rufous ; edges of the scapulars the same, forming a 
noticeable oblique bar; wing coverts tipped, and outer webs of the quills 
squarely spotted, with white, or rufous-white, and tail feathers imperfectly 
barred with the same. 64-7; wing 54-53; tail 25. A small owl with the 
form and much the general aspect of an ungrown S. asio, but the feathering 
of the feet stops abruptly at the toes. Mexico; North to Fort Crook, 
California, where found breeding (Feilner). Sox., Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858, 
96; Sov. and Saty., ibid. 1868, 57, and Exotic Ornithology, vii, 68, 99, 
Reece Sl wt wt Ce SC) FELAMMEOLA, 


142. Genus OTUS Cuvier. 


Long-eared Owl. General plumage above, a variegation of dark brown, 
fulvous and whitish, in a small pattern; breast more fulvous, belly whiter, 
former sharply striped, and latter striped and elaborately barred, with black- 

ish; quills and tail mottled and closely barred with fulvous and dark brown ; 
” face pale, with black touches and eye patches; bill and claws blackish. 


= a 


204. STRIGIDAZ, OWLS.—GEN. 143, 144. 


Tufts long and conspicuous, of 8-12 feathers; ear parts immense, with a 
semicircular flap; facial disk complete; tarsi and toes feathered. 14-15 
long; wing 11-12; tail 5-6. Temperate North America, common. Wits., 
vi, 73, pl. 51, f. 3; Nuorr., i, 130; Aupb., i, 136, pl. 37; CAsepameeroee 
58; Coop.,426. . . . . . . « » «+ WULGARIS var, yeoman 


143. Genus BRACHYOTUS Gould. 


Short-eared Owl. Fulvous or buffy-brown, paler or whitey-brown below ; 
breast and upper parts broadly and thickly streaked with dark brown, belly 
usually sparsely streaked with the same, but not barred crosswise; quills 
and tail buff, with few dark bands, and mottling; facial area, legs and cris- 
sum pale, unmarked ; eye patch blackish. With the size and form of the last 
species, but readily seen to be different ; ear tufts small and inconspicuous, 
few-feathered. Temperate North America, abundant; not appreciably 
different from the European. Wits., iv, 64, pl. 33, f. 3; Nurr., i, 132; 
Aup., i, 140, pl. 838; Cass. in Bp., 54; Coop., 427. . .. JS) sapere 


144. Genus SYRNIUM Savigny. 

*,* Large owls, without ear-tufts, the facial disks complete and of great extent, 
the eyes comparatively small, the ear parts moderate, operculate, the tarsi and 
toes fully feathered. 

Great Gray Owl. Above, cinereous-brown, mottled in waves with cine- 
reous-white ; below, these colors rather paler, disposed in streaks on the 
breast, in bars elsewhere ; quills and tail with five or six darker and lighter 
bars; the great disk similarly marked in regular concentric rings. An 
immense owl, one of the largest of all, much exceeding any other of this 
country ; about 24 feet long, the wing 14, the tail a foot or more. Arctic 
Am., irregularly S. into the northern U.S. in winter. Bonar., Am. Orn. 
pl. 23, f. 2; Sw. and Ricn., F. B.-A. ii, 77, pl. 31; Avup., 1, 130)pleen 
Nutr., i, 128; Cass. in Bp., 56; Coopr., 433. LAPPONICUM var. CINEREUM. 

Barred Owl. Above, cinereous-brown, barred with white, often tinged 
with fulvous; below, similar, paler, the markings in Jars on the breast, in 
streaks elsewhere ; quills and tail feathers barred 
with brown and white with an ashy or fulvous 
tinge. Length about 18; wing 13-14; tail 9. 
Eastern North America, common. WIts., iv, 61, 
pl. 33, f. 2; Nurr., i, 133; Aup., 1, 132;q7igome 
Cass. in Bp., 56; Coor., 481. . . NEBULOSUM. 

Western Barred Oul. Resembling the last, 
but easily distinguished: general color warm 
brown; the white bars above broken into spots 

particularly towards and on the head; below, the markings in bars every- 
where; wings and tail closely barred. Fort Tejon, Cala.; one specimen 
-known. - Xantus, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1859, 193; Bop., B. N. A. 1860, p. 
v, pl. 66 (not in the Government edition) ; Coop., 480. . OCCIDENTALE. 


Fic. 137. Barred Owl. 


STRIGIDE, OWLS.—GEN. 145, 146, 147. 205 


-145. Genus NYCTEA Stephens. 


Snowy Owl. Pure white, with more or fewer blackish markings. 
Nearly 2 feet long; wing 17 inches; tail 10. Head smooth; facial disks 
incomplete ; eyes and ear parts moder- 
ate ; feet densely clothed. This remark- 
able owl, conspicuous both in size and 

- color, inhabits the boreal regions of both 
continents, coming southward in winter ; 
it ordinarily enters the United States, 
and in extreme cases ranges irregularly 
through most of the States. It is not 
by any means exclusively nocturnal. 
Wars. iv, 55, pl. 32, f. 1; Notr., i, 
116; Aup., i, 113, pl. 28; Cass. in Bp., 
GasrGoor., 447... . . . NIVEA. off 


146. Genus SURNIA Dumeril. 


Hawk Owl. Day Owl. Dark brown 
above, more or less thickly speckled 
with white; below, closely barred with 
brown and whitish, the throat alone 
streaked ; quills and tail with numerous white bars; face ashy, margined 
with black. Length about 16 inches; wing 9; tail 7, graduated, the lateral 
feathers 2 inches shorter than the central. Except in the length of its tail, 
which produces linear measurements unusual for a bird of its bulk in this 
family, its general form is that of the snowy owl. Like that species, it is a 
bird of Arctic regions, coming southward in winter, but its range is more 
restricted, rarely extending to the Middle States. It is the most diurnal 
bird of the family, ranging abroad at all times, and approaches a hawk 
more nearly than any other. Wus., vi, 64, pl. 50, f.6; Nurr., i, 115; 
Aobp., i, 112, pl. 27; Cass. in Bp., 64; Coop., 448. ‘ULULA Var. HUDSONICA. 


\ nn 


FIG. 138. Snowy Owl. 


147. Genus NYCTALE Brehm. 


* .* Small owls with the head untufted, the facial disks complete, the ears opercu- 
late, the tarsus longer than the middle toe, the tail nearly even, the 3d quill longest, 
the first 5 emarginate; color above chocolate-brown, spotted with white, the tail 
with transverse white bars; the adult with the facial area and forehead variegated 
with white, the face and superciliary line grayish-white, the lower parts white with 
spots or streaks of the color of the back; the yowng with the facial area and fore- 
head dark brown, the face dusky, the eyebrows pure white, the lower parts brown, 
paler on the belly, unmarked. (See Rmaway, Am. Nat. vi, 284.) 


Tengmalm’s Owl. Large; wing 74; tail 45, thus more than half the 
wing. Bill yellow, the cere not tumid, the nostrils presenting laterally, and 
obliquely oval. Arctic America, south to the borders of the United States. 


206 STRIGIDH, OWLS.—GEN. 148. 


Strix tengmalmi Aup., Orn. Biog. iv, 559, pl. 880; B. Am. i, 122, pl. 32. 
Nyctale richardsoni Cass. in Bp., 57. According to Mr. Ridgway, the 
American bird is a distinguishable variety, being darker, the dark areas 
larger, legs speckled instead of plain, ete. TENGMALMII var. RICHARDSONII. 

Acadian Owl. Saw-whet Owl. Small; wing 54; tail 23, thus not more 
than half the wing. Bill black, the cere tumid, the circular nostrils pre- 
senting anteriorly. United States and somewhat northward; Mexico. 
Common. Nyctale albifrons Cass. in Bp., 57, and Ill. 187; Coop., 435; 
N. kirtlunditi Hoy, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1852, 210; Cass., Ill. 63, pl. 11; 
Strix frontalis Licur.; these are the young. Strix passerina WILS., iv, 
66, pl. 34, f. 1; Strix acadica Nurtt., i, 1837; Ulula acadica Aup., i, 123, 
pl. 33; WV. acadica Cass. in Bo., 58; Coop., 436. . . | 7 Gamera 


148. Genus GLAUCIDIUM Wagler. 

*,* Very small; head untufted ; facial disk nearly obsolete; ear parts moderate ; 
tarsus fully feathered, toes thickly bristled; wings short and much rounded, 4th 
quill longest, the 8 outer ones emarginate; tail rather long, even; claws strong, 
sharp, much curved. ; 

Pygmy Owl, Above, uniform brown, everywhere dotted with small 
round white spots, and with a collar of mixed white and blackish around the 
back of the neck; breast with a mottled brown band separating the white 
throat from the rest of the white under parts, which all have lengthwise 
reddish-brown streaks; wings and tail dusky brown with round white spots 
on both webs, largest on the inner; under wing coverts white with black 
marks disposed in an oblique bar. @ 7, or a little less; extent 143 ; wing 
32; tail 3; 9 larger; 73, extent 154, etc. Iris and soles yellow; toes 
above, bill and cere, greenish-yellow. The shade of the upper parts ranges 
from pure deep brown to pale grayish-brown, sometimes with a slight oliva- 
ceous shade. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U. S., common; a crepus- 
cular and rather diurnal than strictly nocturnal species. Surnia passerinoides 
Aupb., i, 117, pl. 30. G. infuscatum Cass., Ill. 189; G. gnoma Cass. in 
Bp., 62; Coop., 444... . . . . . PASSERINUM Var. CALIFORNICUM: 

ferrugineous Owl. With the size, shape, and somewhat the coloration 
of the foregoing, but readily distinguished: under parts and nuchal collar 

“much the same, but the former usually with a rusty tinge; upper parts 
ranging from the color of gnoma to a rusty-red (the variation nearly as great 
as in the two plumages of Scops asio), not continuously speckled, the 
whitish or ochrey spots mostly confined to the wing coverts and scapulars, 
those of the crown lengthened into sharp streaks; spots on the quills 
enlarged into bars nearly confluent from one web to the other, rusty or 
ashy next the shafts, white or tawny on the edges of the feathers, especially 
the inner; tail in both plumages alike closely and continuously barred with 
brown and rusty-red (same as the color of the upper parts in the red 
plumage, conspicuously different in the gray plumage), the latter sometimes 
fading on the inner webs. South and Central America and Mexico to the 


GEN. 149, 150. 207 


STRIGIDX, OWLS. 


U. S. border; Arizona (Bendire). Cours, Am. Nat. vi, 370. (Described 
from extra-limital specimens, No. 58,229, Mazatlan, and 43,055, Costa Rica, 
transmitted by the Smithsonian for the purpose.) . . . FERRUGINEUM. 


149. Genus MICRATHENE Coues. 


Whitney's Owl. Above light brown, thickly dotted with angular paler 
brown marks, the back also obsoletely marbled with darker; a concealed 
white cervical collar, forming a bar across the middle of the feathers, which 
are plumbeous at base and brown at tip; quills with 3-6 spots on each web, 
white on the inner webs of all and outer webs of several, brown on the rest; 
coverts with two rows of white spots, brown spots intervening; outer 
secondaries with a few white spots, and scapulars showing a white stripe ; 
lower wing coverts tawny white, with a dark brown patch; other wing- 
feathers dark brown with pale ashy dots near the ends of the secondaries ; 
tail feathers with light spots forming five broken bars, and a narrow terminal 
bar; feathers over eyes white, with black-spotted shaft; under eyes light 


‘brown obsoletely barred with darker; bristles about the bill black on their 


terminal half; chin and throat white, becoming light brown below, the white 
forming a broad crescent; sides of neck narrowly barred with ashy and 
brown, and breast imperfectly barred and blotched with the same, towards 
the abdomen forming large patches, margined with gray and white; tibiz 
narrowly barred with light and dark brown; tarsal bristles whitish; bill 
pale greenish; iris and soles yellow. Length 64; extent 154; wing 44; 
tail 24; gape of bill $; bill 4 high, 2 wide at base. Facial disk imperfect ; 
no ear tufts; wings very long, but rounded; 3d and 4th quills longest, 2d 
equal to 6th, 1st % the 3d; tail nearly even, with broad-tipped feathers ; 
tarsus nearly bare of feathers, sparsely bristly, like the toes; middle toe and 
claw about as long as the tarsus; claws remarkably small, weak, and little 
eurved. Colorado Valley and southward (Fort Mojave, Cooper; Southern 
Arizona, Bendire; Mazatlan and Socorro, Grayson). A diminutive owl of 
remarkable characters, only lately discovered. Cooper, Proc. Cala. Acad. 
1861, 118, and L. Cal. 442; Couss, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 51; Lawr., 
Seeeeeoe. Soc. 15/1, p.—; Eniior, pl. 29. . . . . . WHITNEYI. 


150. Genus SPHEOTYTO Gloger. 

Burrowing Owl. Above, grayish-brown, with white, black-edged spots ; 
below, tawny-whitish, variegated with reddish-brown, chiefly disposed in 
bars; face and throat whitish; crissum and legs mostly unmarked; quills 
with numerous paired tawny-white spots, and tail feathers barred with the 
same; bill grayish-yellow; claws black. 9-10 long; wing 64-73; tail 
34-4. No tufts; facial disk imperfect; tarsi very long, extensively denuded, 
bristly like the toes. Prairies and other open portions of the United States 
west of the Mississippi, abundant; lives in holes in the ground, in prairic- 
dog towns, and the settlements of other burrowing animals, using their 
deserted holes for its nesting place. There is certainly but one species in this 


208 FALCONID®, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 


country; it is merely a variety of the S. American bird. Bonap., Am. Orn. 
pl. 7,f.2; Nurr., i, 118; Aup., i, 119, pl. 31; Athene hypogea and A. cunic- 
ularia Cass. in Bp., 59, 60; Coor., 437,440. CUNICULARIA Var. HYPOGAA. 


Family FALCONIDZA. Diurnal Birds of Prey. 


Comprising the great bulk of the order, this large family may be best defined by 
exclusion of the special features marking the others. There is nothing of the 
erallatorial analogy exhibited by the singular G‘ypogeranide; the nostrils are not 
completely pervious, nor the hind toe obviously elevated, as in Cathartide, and 
other peculiarities of the American vultures are not shown. Comparing with the 
owls, we miss their peculiar physiognomy, the eyes looking laterally as in ordinary 
birds, the disk wanting (except in the Circus group, where it is imperfect), the after- 
shaft present (except in Pandion), the outer toe not versatile (except in Pandion), 
and not shorter than the inner. The external ears are moderate and non-operculate. 
The eyes, as a rule (but not always), are sunken beneath a projecting superciliary 
shelf, conferring a decided and threatening gaze. The bill shows the raptorial type 
in its perfection, and is always furnished with a cere in which the nostrils are 
pierced. The lores, with occasional exceptions owing to nakedness or dense soft 
feathering, are scantily clothed with radiating bristles, which however do not form, 
as in the owls, a dense appressed mass hiding the base of the bill. The feet are 
strong, with widely separable and highly contractile toes, and large sharp curved 
claws—eflicient instruments of prehension, offence and defence. The toes are 
generally scabrous underneath, with wart-like pads at the joints, to prevent slipping, 
and commonly show a basal web. The podotheca is very variable; the whole 
tarsus is frequently feathered, and usually partially so; the horny covering takes 
the form of scutella, or reticulations, or rugous granulations, and is occasionally 
fused. The capacious gullet dilates into a crop ; the gizzard is moderately muscular ; 
the intestines vary; the coeca are extremely small. The syrinx has one pair of 
intrinsic muscles. There are several good osteological characters. 

Birds of this family abound in all parts of the world, and hold the relation to 
the rest of their class that the carnivorous beasts do to other mammals. There are 
upwards of 300 good species or very strongly marked geographical races, justly 
referable to about 50 full genera. In round numbers, 1,000 specific and 200 
generic names have been instituted for Falconide. No unexceptionable sub- 
division of the family has yet been proposed; and as this point is still at issue, I 
deem it best not to present subfamilies. Instead of an attempt in this. direction, 
which would necessarily be premature, I will endeavor to give the student a general 
idea of the composition of the family. 

1. The Old World vultures form a group standing somewhat apart from the 
others in many points of external structure and habits, although correspondent in 
more essential characters. Until Prof. Huxley’s successful exhibition of this fact, 
they were usually united in a family, Vultwride, with the American yultures, from 
which, however, they differ decidedly, as stated beyond. It is a small group of six 
genera and about twelve species. The bearded griffin, Gypaetus barbatus, is conspic- 
uous for its raptorial nature. The other genera, more or less decidedly “* vulturine,” 
are Vultur, Otogyps, Gyps, Neophron and Gypohierax; the characteristic species 
are —V. monachus, O. auricularis,-G. fuluus, N. percnopterus and G. angolensis. 

2. ‘The genus Polyborus (beyond), illustrates a small group of hawks partaking 


FALCONID, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 209 


somewhat of a vulturine nature; they feed much upon carrion, are rather sluggish 
in habit, and lack the spirit of the typical hawks. Details of form vary in the three 
genera Polyborus, Ibycter, and Milvago. There are less than twelve species, all 
confined to America. 

3. The harriers are another small group, in which a ruff, forming an imperfect 
facial disk, as in the owls, is more or less developed. It consists of the genus 
Cireus and its subdivisions (to which some add Polyboroides, of Africa), comprising 
about fifteen species of various parts of the world. Our species is a typical example. 

4. The jish-hawks, of the single genus Pandion, with four or five species or races 
of various parts of the world, are remarkably distinguished from other birds of the 
family by the lack of aftershafts, a special tract-formation, a peculiar conformation 
of the feet, and other characters as noticed further on. 

5. The genus Pernis is distinguished from ordinary Falconide, in having the 
whole head softly and densely feathered. /P. apivorus, the bee-eating hawk of 
Europe, is the type. It approaches the kites. 

6. The kites form a rather extensive group of hawks averaging undersized 
and of no great strength, though very active, generally of lithe and graceful shape, 
with long pointed wings and often forked tail. They subsist on small game, 
especially insects, which they capture with great address. The eye is commonly 
unshielded. Besides the genera given beyond, there are several others: Milvus, 
near which our Nauclerus stands, of Europe and Asia; the Indian and East Indian 
Baza, the African Aviceda, and the remarkable Machaerhamphus of Africa and 
Malacea; with the American Cymindis, and Gampsonyx. There are some thirty 
species of the group as thus constituted; but some of the genera are questionably 
enumerated here. Milvus, Nauclerus, Elanus and Ictinia are true kites. 

7.. The buzzards form a large group, not easily defined, however, unless it be by 
exclusion of the peculiarities of the others. They are hawks of medium and 
rather large size, heavy-bodied, of strong but rather measured flight, inferior in 
spirit to the true hawks and falcons, and as a rule feed upon humble game, which 
they rather snatch stealthily than capture in open piracy. The extensive genus 
Buteo with its subdivisions, and its companion Archibuteo, typify the buzzards; 
they include, however, a variety of forms, shading into other groups. With them 
must be associated the eagles; for the popular estimate of these famous great birds 
as something remarkably different from ordinary hawks is not confirmed by exam- 
ination of their structure, which is essentially the same as that of the buzzards, into 
which they grade. Although usually of large size, and powerful physique, they are 
far below the smallest falcons in raptorial character, prey like the buzzards, and 
often stoop to carrion. The genus Aquila may stand as the type of an eagle; its 
several species are confined to the Old World, with one exception. Haliaétus rep- 
resents a decided modification in adaptation to maritime and piscivorous habits. 
A celebrated bird of this group is the harpy eagle of South America, Thrasiaétus 
harpyia, with immense bill and feet, and one of the most powerful birds of the 
whole family. There are several other genera in either hemisphere. 

8. The hawks proper are another extensive group, of medium sized and small 
species, which, although less powerfully organized, are little, if any, inferior in spirit 
and relative strength to the true falcons. Their flight is swift, they capture their 
prey in active chase like hounds, and always kill for themselves. The wings are 
rather short, as a rule, with the tip formed by the 3d—5th quills, the 2d and 1st being 
shortened ; the tail is generally lengthened. The eye is shaded by a bony brow. 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 27 


= pee: 


210 FALCONIDZ, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 151. 


The genera Astur and <Accipiter are perfect illustrations of this group; the several 
other genera usually adopted are not very different. There appear to be about 
seventy-five species, of most parts of the world. 

9. Lastly, the true falcons are prominently distinguished by the presence of a 
tooth behind a notch of the upper mandible, in the foregoing birds the tomia being 
simply lobed or festooned, or merely arched. The falcons are birds of medium and 
small size (one of them is not larger than some sparrows), but extremely compact 
and powerful organization, and bold ruthless disposition ; they prey by sudden and 
violent assault, and exhibit the raptorial nature in its perfection. ‘The wings are 
strong, long and pointed, the tip formed by the 2d and 3d quills supported nearly 
to the end by the 1st and 4th; the tail is generally short and stiff. The typical and 
principal genus is Falco, of which there are, however, several subdivisions corres- 
ponding to minor modifications. The Australian Jeracidea, the East Indian Jerax, 
and the Brazilian Harpagus, which is doubly-toothed, are the principal other forms. 
There are upwards of fifty species of true falcons. 

With many exceptions, in this family the sexes are alike in color, but the female 
is almost invariably larger than the male. The changes of plumage with age are 
great, and render the determination of the species perplexing—the more so since 
purely individual, and somewhat climatic, color-variations, and such special condi- 
tions as melanism, are very frequent. ‘The modes of nesting are various; the 
eggs as a rule are blotched, and not so nearly spherical as those of owls. The 
food is exclusively of an animal nature, though endlessly varied; the refuse of 
digestion is ejected in a ball by the mouth. The voice is loud and harsh. Asa 
rule, the birds of prey are not strictly migratory, though many of them change 
their abode with much regularity. ‘Their mode of life necessarily renders them 
non-gregarious. 

In the following sequence of our genera, the student will observe an attempt to 
indicate affinities not only in the family itself, but with allied families, by the 
central position of the typical Falco, the series beginning with the most owl- 
like form, and ending with the vulturine buzzards. But it is hoped that he will 
detect the imperfection of the arrangement, and that his studies will soon convince 
him of the impossibility of expressing natural relationships in any linear series. 
With this hint, the inviting problem is left open to stimulate investigation. 


151. Genus CIRCUS Lacepede. 


Marsh Harrier. Adult g pale bluish-ash, nearly unvaried, whitening 
below and on upper tail coverts; quills blackish toward the end; 16-18; 
wing 14-15; tail 8-9; 9 larger, above dark 
brown streaked with reddish-brown, below the 
reverse of this; tail banded with these colors ; 
the immature ¢ is like the 92, though redder, 
but in any plumage the bird is known by its 
white upper tail coverts, and generic charac- 

ters: face with ruffs ; wings, tail and tarsi very 
FG. 139. Marsh Harrier. long, the latter scutellate before and behind, 
and twice as long as the middle toe ; nostrils oval, ete. North America, abund- 
ant. Nests on the ground. WIzS., vi, 67, pl. 51, f. 2; Nurt.,i, 109; Aup., 
i, 105, pl. 26; Cass. in Bp, 88; Coor., 489. . CYANEUS var. HUDSONIUS. 


FALCONID®, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 152-156. 211 


152. Genus ROSTRHAMUS Lesson. 


Everglade Kite. Adult g blackish; coverts and base of tail feathers 
white ; cere and feet yellow; bill and claws black; iris red; 16-18; wing 
134-154; tail 63-74, emarginate; Dill about 1, extremely slender and with 
a long hook; tarsi scutellate in front, the bare part shorter than the middle 
toe; claws very long, gently curved. ¢@ and young brown, more or less 
variegated with fulvous and whitish. Florida, and southward. Cass. in Bp., 
38; Maynarp, Birds of Florida, os i, V ice press; best account of the 
i a co .  *. ~SOOLABILIS. 


153. Genus ICTINIA Vieillot. 


Mississippi Evite. Plumbeous, paler on the head and under parts, black- 
ening on wings and tail; quills suffused with rich chestnut; sexes alike ; 
young varied with rusty and whitish; 14-15; wing 11-12, pointed; tail 
6—64, nearly square. Bill very short and deep, the commissure with promi- 
nent festoon; nostrils small, circular; tarsus short, scutellate anteriorly ; 
outer and middle toe webbed; claws short, stout, flattened beneath. S. At- 
lantic and Gulf States, N. to Illinois (Ridgway). Wrus., iii, 80, pl. 25, 
f.1; Norr.,i,92; Aup.,i, 73, pl. 17; Cass. in Bp., 37. MISSISSIPPIENSIS. 


154. Genus ELANUS Savigny. 


White-tailed Kite. Black-shouldered Hite. Mead, tail and under parts 
white ; back cinereous; most of the wing coverts black; bill black; legs 
yellow ; young variegated with brown above, the head and tail ashy. Rather 
larger than the last; nostrils nearly circular ; tarsi reticulate, feathered above 
in front; outer toe scarcely webbed; claws rounded underneath; tail emar- 
ginate, but outer feather shorter than the next. South Atlantic and Gulf 
States, California, and southward, chiefly coastwise. Nurt., i, 93; Avup., i, 
eee Ase. bD., 57; Coor., 488. 2. . . . . LEUCURUS. 


155. Genus NAUCLERUS Vigors. 


Swallow-tailed Hite. UWead, neck and under parts, white; back, wings 
and tail, lustrous black. Tail a foot or more long, deeply forficate ; wing 
15-18, pointed; feet small, greenish-blue; claws pale; tarsi reticulate and 
feathered half way down in front; toes hardly webbed; nostrils broadly 
oval. <A beautiful bird, common in the South Atlantic and Gulf States, in 
its extensive wanderings sometimes reaching the Middle districts, and in the 
interior penetrating to Wisconsin (Hoy), Missouri (Cowes) and even Min- 
nesota (lat. 47°; Trippe). Wu.s., vi, 70, - JL, dy oF eNOET Gino Raw De, 
i, 78, pl. 18; Cass. in Bp., 36. . . . tl wie oy at en KUROAMUS: 


156. Genus ACCIPITER Brisson. 


*,* Tarsus feathered but little way down in front (in gen. 157 the feathering 
reaches half way to the toes) ; toes long, slender, much webbed at base and padded 


212 FALCONIDE, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 156, 157. 


underneath ; height of bill at base greater than chord of culmen; 4th quill longest, 
2d shorter than 6th, 1st very short. The two following species are exactly alike in 
color; one is a miniature of the other. The ordinary plumage is dark brown above 
(deepest on the head, the occipital feathers showing white when disturbed) with an 
ashy or plumbeous shade which increases with age, till the general cast is quite 
bluish-ash ; below, white or whitish, variously streaked with dark brown and rusty, 
finally changing to brownish-red (palest behind and slightly ashy across the breast) 
with the white then only showing in narrow cross-bars ; chin, throat and crissum 
mostly white with blackish pencilling ; wings and tail barred with ashy and brown 
or blackish, the quills white-barred basally, the tail whitish-tipped; bill dark; 
claws black; cere and feet yellow. 

Sharp-shinned Hawk. “ Pigeon Hawk.” Feet extremely slender; bare 
portion of tarsus longer than middle toe; scutella frequently fused; tail 
square. g 10-12; wing 
6-7; tail5-6. 9 12-14; 
wing 7-8; tail 6-7. 


XG Whole foot 34 or less. 
CASS NG North America, abund- 
a <ZG Zi \\ ant. Falco velox WiLs., 
SAIN Wy vy 116, pl. 45,78 ape 
Z SS) pennsylvanicus WILS., Vi, 
WS 13, pl. 46, f.1; Sw. and 
Ricu., F. B.-A. 13°74; 
—— Noutt., 1, 873 =Aunpee 
Fic. 140. Cooper’s Hawk. 100, pl. 25 ; Cass. in Bp. a 
18)“ Coop (466. 2 4 = ee ; . . PUSOUB: 
Cooper’s Hawk. Chicken Hawk. Feet dodanie ious bare portion 
of tarsus shorter than middle toe; scutella remaining distinct; tail a little 
rounded. ¢ 16-18; wing 9-10; tail 7-8; 9 18-20; wing 10-11; tail 
8-9. Whole foot 4 or more. N. Am., especially U. S.; common. Bonape., 
Am. Orn. i, 1, pl. 1, f. 1; Aup., i, 98, pl. 24; Cass. in Bp.) 165 @oeen 
464. Falco coopert and F’. stanleti Nurr., i, 90,91. A. mexicanus Cass. 
in Bp., 17: Coop., 465, is the same bird. . . ©. .~ 3) 7930 


raN or 
Penge ae CEE 


157. Genus ASTUR lLacepede. 


Goshawk. Adult dark bluish-slate blackening on the head, with a white 
superciliary stripe; tail with four broad dark bars; below, closely barred 
with white and pale slate, and sharply streaked with blackish. Young dark 
brown above, the feathers with pale edges, streaked with tawny-brown on 
the head and cervix; below fulvous-white with oblong brown markings. 
g 2 feet long; wing 14 inches; tail 11; g smaller. A large, powerful, 
and, in perfect plumage, a very handsome hawk, inhabiting northern North 
Ameriea; the northern half of the United States chiefly in winter, but also 
breeding in mountainous parts. Wruts., vi, 80, pl. 52, f. 3; Nurr., i, 85; 
Aup., i, 95, pl. 23; Cass. im Bp., 15; Coor:,; 467. A varietyageeiae 
European Astur palumbarius? . . . . . . . « °. APRICAPHGEOE: 


, 


Young with the colors not so in- 


FALCONIDE®, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 158. 213 


158. Genus FALCO Linneus. 

* Tarsus more or less feathered above, elsewhere irregularly reticulate in small 
pattern ; 2d quill longest; 1st alone decidedly emarginate on inner web. 

Jerfalcon, or Gyrfalcon. Tarsus feathered fully half-way down in front, 
with only a narrow bare strip behind, and longer than middle toe; 1st quill 
shorter than 3d. Upward of 2 feet long; wing about 16 inches; tail 10. 
White, with dark markings much as in the snowy owl; or, ash-colored with 
numerous lighter bars; young striped longitudinally beneath. An arctic 
falcon, of circumpolar distribution, in this country reaching the northern 
states in winter. It is split into several varieties which, however, do. not 
seem to be strictly geographical, and concerning which ornithologists are 
singularly agreed to disagree. In var. candicans, the white predominates 
over the dark markings, and the bill and claws are white; N. Greenland ; 
Iceland; Arct. Am. and Eur. Avbp., i, 81, pl. 19; Exxiot, pl. 30; Cass. 
in Bp., 13. In var. islandicus, dark markings predominate, and the bill and 
claws are dark; the crown is lighter than the back, and the dark maxillary 
patches are slight; S. Greenland; Iceland; N. Eur. and Am.; S. to U.S. 
in winter. Cass. in Bp., 13; Exuior, pl. 31. Var. gyrfalco is like the 
last, but with the crown darker than the back, and the moustaches heavy. 
Other strains are sometimes recognized by name. See Newron, Proc. 
Phila. Acad. 1871, 95; Rrpeway, ibid. 1870, 140; Barrp, Trans. Chicago 
eeatt. 8. . . SACER (Forst. 1772). 

Lanier Falcon. Tarsus eaihered. a ava way down in front, broadly bare 
behind, and longer than middle toe; 1st quill shorter than third. A foot 
and a half hag: wing 13-14; tail 7-8. Above, plain brown, the feathers 
bordered with rusty, the nape, forehead and superciliary line white ; below, 
white, with brown maxillary patches and other streaks on the breast and 
belly, the flanks barred; tail barred and tipped with whitish; adult with 


_yellow iris and yellowish legs; young with brown iris and bluish legs. 
fo) > fo) 


Western United States and southward; E. to Illinois (Sargent, Ridgway). 
Ff. polyagrus Cass., Ill. 88, pl. 16; Bp., 12; Coor., 458. . MEXICANUS. 

Peregrine Falcon. Duck Hawk. ‘Tarsus feathered but a very little way 
above in front, and not longer than the middle toe; 1st quill not shorter 
than 3d. Size of the last, or rather 
less. Above, blackish-ash, with 
more or less evident paler waves; 
below, and the forehead, white with 
more or less fulvous tinge, and @ 
transverse bars of blackish; con- 
spicuous black cheek-patches. 


Ft 
. We, 
: LagfVnge Sg He 
2 "ype g 
es oe 


Fic. 141. Peregrine Falcon, 


tense, tending rather to brown; the . 
tawny shade below stronger, the lower parts longitudinally striped. North 
America; generally distributed, not abundant. /. peregrinus WIts., ix, 


214 FALCONIDH, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 158. 


120, pl. 76; Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 23; Nurr., i, 53; Avp., i, 84, 
pl. 20. FF. anatum and F. nigriceps Cass. in Bp., 7, 8. . . COMMUNIS. 


Oss. F. rufigularis, a bird of this section of the genus, admitted to our fauna 
under the name of F’. aurantius (Cass.in Bp., 10; Exxior, pl. 32), does not appear 
to have been taken within our limits. 

** Tarsus scarcely feathered above, with the plates in front enlarged, appearing 
like a double row of alternating scutella (and often with a few true scutella at base) ; 
1st and 2nd quills emarginate on inner web. 


Pigeon Falcon. Pigeon Hawk. Adult g above ashy-blue, sometimes 
almost blackish, sometimes much paler; below pale fulvous, or ochraceous, 
whitish on the throat, the breast and sides with large oblong dark brown 
spots with black shaft lines; the tibie reddish, streaked with brown; inner 
webs of primaries with about 8 transverse white or whitish spots ; tail tipped 
with white, and with the outer feather whitening; with a broad subterminal 
black zone and 3-4 black bands alternating with whitish; cere greenish- 
yellow, feet yellow. 9 with the upper parts ashy-brown; the tail with 4-5 
indistinct whitish bands; about 13; wing 8; tail5; g smaller. N. Am., 
generally distributed, common. Observe that Accipiter fuscus is also called 
“pigeon hawk.” Wu1s., ii, 107, pl. 15, f. 3; Sw. and Ricn., ii, 35; Nurr., 
i, 60; Avup., i, 88, pl. 21; Cass. in Bp., 9. . . . «2 SO@MUNEeer 

Richardson’s Falcon. Similar; sexes nearly alike, both lighter and more 
earthy-brown than the ¢ of the last; head nearly white anteriorly; streaks 
on the cheeks fine and sparse, those on the breast broad and sharp, light 
brown, with black shaft lines; tail with 6 ashy-white bands; 9 above with 
pairs of ochraceous spots on the feathers, and secondaries with three ochra- 
ceous bands; wing 9; tail 6; tarsus nearly 1$; g smaller. Interior N. 
Am., especially from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains. Very near 
the last; both are very closely related to #’. esalon of Europe, the fewer 
bars of the wings and tail being a principal character. Ripe@way, Proc. 
Phila.- Acad. 1870, 145. #'. esalon Ricw. and Sw., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 37, 
pl. 25; Nurr., ii, 558 ; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 42. RICHARDSONII. 

Rusty-crowned Falcon. Sparrow Hawk. Crown ashy-blue, with a chest- 
nut patch, sometimes small or altogether wanting, sometimes occupying 
nearly all the crown; conspicuous black maxillary and auricular patches, 
which with three others around the nape make seven black places in all, but 
a part of them often obscure or wanting; back cinnamon brown, in the ¢ 
with a few black spots or none, in the @ with numerous black bars; wing 
coverts in the g¢ ashy-blue, with or without black spots, in the 9 like the 
back; quills in both sexes blackish with numerous pale or white bars on 
inner webs; tail chestnut, in the g with one broad black subterminal bar, 
white tip, and outer feather mostly white with several black bars; in the 9 
the whole tail with numerous imperfect black bars ; below white, variously 
tinged with buff, or tawny, in the g¢ with a few small black spots or none, 
in the @ with many brown streaks; throat and vent nearly white and immac- 
ulate in both sexes; bill dark horn, cere and feet yellow to bright orange; 


* te 


—--r:- SS 


ee 


FALCONIDZ, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 159. De 


10-11; wing 7; tail 5, more or less. North America, everywhere, very 
abundant. This elegant little hawk will be immediately recognized by its 
small size, and entirely peculiar coloration, although the plumage varies 
almost interminably. However the case may be with the West Indian and 
other exotic forms, no races have been discovered 
in this country sufficiently marked to require 
designation by name. But we may, perhaps, 
with Mr. Ridgway (Proc. Phila. Acad. 1870, 
149), recognize var. isabellinus, as a Middle 
American coast form occurring in the Gulf States, 
although of course it shades directly into the 
ordinary plumage (no rufous on crown; several 
lateral tail feathers variegated, the black zone an 
ineh wide; black spots on back and sides very sparse; breast ochraceous ; 
@ with the black bars above unusually broad, upon a ferrugineous ground). 
Wus., ii, 117, pl. 16, f. 1; iv, 57, pl. 32, f. 2; Nurr., i, 58; Aup., i, 90, 
Seeeeeeaes in Bp., 13; Coop.,462. . . . . . . SPARVERIUS. 

Femoral Falcon. Ashy-brown or pale slate, Eeooaling to age; forehead 
and superciliary line white, deepening to orange-brown on the auriculars ; 
two ashy stripes on side of head; wings and tail with numerous white bars ; 
under wing coverts buffy with numerous black spots; throat and breast white 
or tawny ; belly with a broad black zone; tibive and crissum orange-brown. 
Length 15 or more; wing 104; tail 74. A widely distributed South and 
Central American species, reaching just over our Mexican border; it belongs 
to the same section of the genus as the sparrow hawk, but is not at all like 
this or any of the foregoing species. Cass. in Bp., 11, pl. 1; Dressmr, Ibis, 
1865, 333 ; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 42; Coor., 461. FEMORALIS. 


Fic. 142. Sparrow Hi: wk. 


159. Genus BUTEO Cuvier. 

* Five outer primaries emarginate on inner web; bill high; nostrils oval, hori- 
zontal, with eccentric tubercle ; feet robust. (Subgenus Crazirex.) 

Harris Buzzard. Dark chocolate-brown, nearly uniform; wing coverts 
and tibize brownish-red; upper tail coverts, base and tip of tail, white ; 
young duller brown, varied with fulvous; 9 nearly 24; wing 15; tail 10; 
g smaller. A South and Central American species, reaching our Gulf 
border. Very different from any of the following species ; approaching the 
Polybort in habits. Auvp., i, 25, pl. 5; Bp., 46. unricrNcrus var. HARRISII. 

** Four outer primaries’ emarginate on inner web. 

Cooper’s Buzzard. Very pale; below, pure white, the tibie tawny, the 
throat, breast and flanks with a few dark streaks; a blackish patch on under 
wing coverts ; crown and hind neck with the feathers largely white at base, 
with dark tips and streaks; upper tail coverts white, rufous-tinged, dark- 
barred; tail mostly white, with ashy clouding, marked with rufous and 
darker in Jengthwise pattern, and with dark subterminal zone; back dark 
brown with an ashy shade; 213; wing 15; tail 9. Santa Clara Co., Cala. ; 


216 FALCONID®, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 159. 


one specimen known, which has not been referred to any described species, 
but which cannot be considered as establishing one. Cass., Proc. Phila. 
Acad: 1856, 253, and in Bp., 31; Coop., 472. . <: . . sj) 30G@EIIEEEE 

Harlan’s Buzzard. General color blackish, nearly uniform, the tail nearly 
concolor with the rest of the plumage, or mottled lengthwise with ashy, 
rufous and white, and having a dark subterminal bar (in the young brown 
banded with black) ; inner webs of quills extensively white. Of nearly the 
size and form of the following species; tibial feathers remarkably long and 
flowing. “Louisiana ;” Aup., Orn. Biog. i, 441, v, 380, pl. 86, and B. Amer. 
i, 88, pl. 8; Nurv., i, 105. An obscure species, variously interpreted by 
different writers. See Lawr., Aun. Lyc. N. Y. v, 220; Cass., Ill. 101, and 
in Bp., 24; Bryant, Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H. viii, 109; Cougs, Proc. Phila. 
Acad. 1866, 45; Ripaway, zbid. 1870, 142; Coor., 473. Different “black 
hawks” appear to have received this name, but Mr. Ridgway informs me that 
he believes he has the true harlanii, and that it is a good species. HARLANII. 

Red-tailed Buzzard. Hen Hawk. Adult dark brown above, many feathers 
with pale or tawny margins, and upper tail coverts showing much whitish ; 
below white or reddish-white, with various spots and streaks of different 
shades of brown, generally forming an irregular zone on the abdomen ; 
tail above bright chestnut red, with subterminal black zone and narrow whitish 
tip, below pearly gray; wing coverts dark; young with the tail grayish- 
brown barred with darker, the upper parts with tawny streaking. A large 
stoutly-built hawk; 9 23; wing 154; tail 84; g 20; wing 14; tail 7. 
Wis., vi, 76, 78, pl. 52, f. 1, 2 (adult and young) ; Nourr., i, 102; Aup., 
i, 32, pl. 7; Cass. in Bp., 25. This is the ordinary bird, abundant in 
Eastern North America, where it is subject to comparatively little variation. 
In the West, a form with the throat dark colored, and the under parts exten- 
sively rufous, is B. montanus Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1856, 39, and in 
Bp., 26 (but not of Nurraty). Coop., 469; 2B. “swainsonit” Cass., Ill. 
98 (not the true swainsonii; see below). Another western, melanotic form, 
in which the whole plumage is dark chocolate-brown, with the tail red and 
sometimes a large red patch on the breast, is L. calurus Cass., Proc. Phila. 
Acad. vii, 1855, 281, and in Bp., 22; figured in Pacific R. R. Rep. x, pt. 
iii, pl. 14; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 44. An unpublished variety 
from Cape St. Lucas is B. lucasanus Ripeway, Mss. . . BOREALIS. 

—ed-Shouldered Buzzard. General plumage of the adult of a rich fulvous 
cast; above, reddish-brown, the feathers with dark brown centres; below a 
lighter shade of the same, with narrow dark streaks and white bars; quills 
and tail blackish, conspicuously banded with pure white, éie bend of the 
wing orange-brown. Young plain dark brown above, below white with dark 
streaks; quills and tail barred with whitish (“winter falcon,” /’. hyemalis 
Wits., iv, 73, pl. 35, f. 1; Aup., Orn. Biog. i, 364, pl. 71; . buteowdes 
Nurr., i, 100). Nearly as long as B. borealis, but not nearly so heavy ; 
tarsi more naked; 9 22; wing 14; tail9; ¢ 19; wing 13; tail 8 (average). 
Eastern North America, very abundant. WIts., vi, 86, pl. 53, f. 3; Nurr., 


FALCONID, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 159. 217 


i, 106; Avup., i, 40, pl. 9; Cass. in Bo., 28. In adult plumage, this hand- 
some hawk is unmistakable; but the student may require to look closely 
after the young. The western form, even darker “red” than the eastern, is 
B. elegans Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1855, 281, and in Bp., 28, figured in 
P. RR. Rep. x, Cala. Route, pl..2;-Coop., 477. . . . . . LINEATUS. 
Band-tailed Buzzard. Black or blackish, upper parts with an indefinite 
number of pure white spots; bases of primaries white with black bars ; tail 
of the adult with three broad white bars, of the young with several narrower 
imperfect ones; young varied with rusty? Smaller than any of the fore- 
going, more slightly built, and otherwise obviously different; about 18; 
wing 15; tail 9. California (Cooper), Arizona (Coues), and southward. 
SeraTeR, Trans. Zool. Soc. 1858, 263, pl. 59 mesial ; Cougs, Proc. 
Phila. Acad. 1866, 46; Coop.,479. . . . . . .  ZONOCERCUS. 
*** Three outer quills emarginate on inner web. 
Swainson’s Buzzard. Extremely variable in color, but usually showing 
a broad dark pectoral band contrasted with light surroundings, and numer- 
ous (8-12) narrow dark tail bars. A smaller bird than .the foregoing 
(except zonocercus) ; 9 about 20; wing 16; tail 8$; g¢ less. Not so stoutly 
built; wings and tail relatively longer. Chiefly Western North America; 
also, Canada and Massachusetts. It comes nearest B. vulgaris of Europe. 
B. vulgaris Sw. and Ricw., F. B.-A. ii, 47, pl. 27; Nurtrt., ii, 559; Avp., 
i, 30, pl. 6; Falco buteo Aup., Orn. Biog. iv, 208, pl. 872; B. montanus 
Nortr., 1, 2d ed. 112; B. swainsoni Cass. in Bp., 19 (not of Ill. 98) ; 
Coor., 476; Bp., P. RR. Rep. x, pt. ili, pls. 12,.13. B. bairdit Hor, 
Proc. Phila. Acad. 1853, 451 (Wisconsin) ; Cass., Ill. i, 99, 257, pl. 41, 
and in Bp., 21, is the young, differing materially in color. B. insignatus 
Cass., Ill. 102, 198, pl. 31, and in Bp., 23 aa Nebraska ; California) ; 
Coopr., 474, isa melanotic plumage... . . .. SWAINSONII. 
Broad-winged Buzzard. Above, umber- oe ais feathers with paler, 
or even with fulvous or ashy-white, edging, those of the hind head and nape 
cottony-white at base; quills blackish, most of the inner webs white, barred 
with dusky ; tail with about three broad dark zones alternating with narrow 
white ones, and white-tipped ; conspicuous dusky maxillary patches; under 
parts white, or tawny, variously streaked, spotted or barred with rusty or 
rufous, this color usually predominating in adult birds, when the white 
chiefly appears as oval or circular spots on each feather; throat generally 
whiter than elsewhere, narrowly dark-lined. In the young, the upper parts 
are duller brown, varied with white, the under parts tawny-whitish with 
linear and oblong dark spots, the tail grayish-brown with numerous dark 
bars. 9 18; wing 11; tail 7; ¢ less. Eastern North America, and 
throughout Middle America to Panama; common. A rather small but stout 
species, with short broad wings, very different from any of the foregoing, 
and easily recognized; the maxillary patches are a strong feature. WILs., 
wap oz, pr. 04,f.1; Norr., 1,105; Avup., i, 43, pl. 10; Cass. in Bp., 29. 
Falco latissimus Wits., 1]. c. (later copies). . . . . PENNSYLVANICUS. 
KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 28° 


218 FALCONID, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 160. 


Ozs. I cannot admit Buteo owypterus (Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1855, 282, and 
in Bp., 30; Fort Fillmore, N. M.) as a valid species, although I am not prepared 
to assign it as a synonym of any one of the foregoing. The type and only recog- 
nized specimen is apparently a young bird, very near swainsonii, if not the same. 
(Compare B. fuliginosus Scu., Proc. Zool. Soc, 1858, p. 356.) 


160. Genus ARCHIBUTEO Brehm. 

*,* Large hawks with the tarsi feathered in front to the toes; upward of 2 feet 
long; wing 16-18; tail 8-10. Four outer primaries emarginate on inner web. 

Rough-legged Buzzard. Below, white, variously dark-marked, and often 
with a broad black abdominal zone; but generally no ferrugineous. North 
America; abundant. The black hawk, A. sancti-johannis, is a melanotic 
state, in which the whole plumage is nearly uniform blackish. This does 
not appear to have been observed in the European bird, of which ours is a 
variety. The name adopted, it must be observed, is not intended to 
discriminate this black plumage, but to distinguish the American bird from 
the European lagopus, as a geographical race. alco lagopus Wi1S., iv, 59, 
pl: 83, iias v, 216, pl. 53, f. 1, 2; #. niger Wits., vi, 82; Buteo lagopus 
Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 52, pl. 28; Nurr., i, 97, 98; Aup saya 
11. Cass. in Bp., 32, 33; Coop., 483. . MLAGOPUS var. SANCTI-JOHANNIS. 

Ferrugineous Buzzard. Below, pure white, scarcely or not marked, 
excepting that the legs are rich rufous with black bars, in marked contrast ; 
above, varied with dark brown, rufous, and white; quills brown, with much 
white ; tail silvery-ash, clouded with brown or rufous. Young duller above, 
more marked below, tibie not so strongly contrasted in color. Our hand- 
somest and one of our largest. hawks, inhabiting Western U. S., especially 
California, Arizona and New Mexico. Cass., Ill. 159, pl. 26, and in Bp., 
34; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 46; Coopr., 482. . FERRUGINEUS. 


16Obis. Genus ASTURINA Vieillot. 

Gray Hawk. Nostrils horizontal, without tubercle, upper outline straight, 
lower semicircular; 4 outer primaries emarginate on inner web. Adult 
above cinereous, darkening on the rump; below closely barred with cinere- 
ous and white; tail blackish, with about three white bars, its upper and 
under coverts white; quills ashy-brown, with darker bars and much white 
edging on inner webs; crown with a lateral white stripe; cere and feet 
yellow; 9 18; wing 10; tail 74; g less. Young above umber-brown, 
below white with longitudinal brown stripes ; tail light brown with numerous 


dark bands; tibize barred. A handsome species, resembling a goshawk, but 


belonging to the buteonine group ; admitted to our fauna in 1858 (A. nitida 
Cass. in Bp., 85; Coop., 486) upon the strength of its occurrence in 
Northern Mexico, but only lately detected in the United States. Illinois, 
Ripeway, Am. Nat. 1872, 480. §. Arizona, breeding (Lendire, in epist.). 
A. plagiata Scuu., Mus. P.-B. Asturinw, 1; Sci. and Satyv., Proc. Zool. 
Soc. 1869, 130. . (Not in the Key.) <-. 9.95.5 2) oie o ee 


FALCONID®, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 161, 162, 163, 164. 219 


161. Genus ONYCHOTES Ridgway. 


Gruber’s Buzzard. “Nostrils nearly circular, with a conspicuous (not 
central) tuberéle; tarsus very long and slender; toes moderate; claws 
very long, strong and sharp, but only slightly curved; tibial feathers short, 
close, not reaching beyond the joint; wing very short, much rounded, 
and very concave beneath; 4th quill longest, 1st shorter than 9th; tail 
moderate, rounded; outstretched feet reaching beyond tail.” No white 
about head or neck; general color dark bistre-brown, darkest on crown and 
back, below paler and more rusty; primaries uniform black above, below 
showing white basally; tail crossed by 7-8 obscure narrow dark bars; 
wing 10; tail 52; tarsus 22. One specimen known, supposed to come 
from California. Rmeway, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1870, 149.  . GRUBERII. 


162. Genus PANDION Savigny. 


Osprey. Fish Hawk. Plumage lacking aftershafts, compact, imbricated, 
oily, to resist water; that of the legs short and close, not forming the 
flowing tufts seen in most other genera, that of the head lengthened, 
acuminate ; primary coverts stiff and acuminate. Feet immensely large and 
strong, the tarsus entirely naked, granular-reticulate, the toes all of the same 
length, unwebbed at base, very scabrous underneath, the outer versatile ; 
claws very large, rounded underneath. Hook of the bill long; nostrils 
touching edge of the cere. Above, dark brown; most of the head and neck, 
and the under parts, white, latter sometimes with a tawny shade, and streaked 
with brown. 2 feet long; wing 18-20 inches; tail 8-10. Temperate North 
America, abundant; migratory, piscivorous. Wuts., v, 13, pl. 37; Nurr., 
i, 18; Aup., i, 64, pl. 15; Cass. in Bp., 44; Coop., 454. . HALIAETUS. 


163. Genus AQUILA Auctorum. 


Golden Eagle. Tarsus completely feathered. Dark brown with a pur- 
plish gloss; lanceolate feathers of head and neck, golden-brown; quills 
blackish; in the young, tail white, with a broad terminal black zone. 
About 3 feet long; wing upward of 2 feet; tail a foot or more. North 
America, rather northerly, in winter south ordinarily to about 35°. Wmus., 
weeetes pl. 9, t. 1; Norr., i, 62; Aup., i, 50, pl. 12. A. canadensis 
eenees COOP,,449. . . . . .-. . . . . CHRYSAETUS. 


164. Genus HALIAETUS Savigny. ; 

Bald Eagle. Tarsus naked. Dark brown; head and tail white after de 
third year; before this, these parts like the rest of the plumage. About 
the size of the last species. Immature birds average larger than the adults ; 
the famous “Bird of Washington” (Atp., Orn. Biog., i, 58, pl. 11, and B. 
Amer., i, pl. 13, Kentucky) is a case in point. North America, common ; 
piscivorous; a piratical parasite of the osprey; otherwise notorious as the 
emblem of the Republic. Whits., iv, 89, pl. 36; vii, pl. 55; Nurr., i, 72; 
AvD., i, 57, pl. 14; Cass. in Bp., 43; Coop., 451. . . LEUCOCEPHALUS. 


220 CATHARTIDA, AMERICAN VULTURES.—GEN. 165. 


Oss. The Greenland Sea Eagle, H. albicilla; and the Northern Sea Eagle, H. 
pelagicus (Cass., Ill. 31, pl. 6, and in Bo., 42, 43; Exxiot, pl. 34, 35), both usually 
attributed to our fauna, remain to be detected, the former in N. E., the latter 
in N. W., portions. H. pelagicus has 14 rectrices, and is otherwise distinct. 


Fic. 143. Bald Eagle. 


165. Genus POLYBORUS Vieillot. 


Caracara Buzzard. Bill long, high, compressed, little hooked, commis- 
sure nearly straight to the deflected end; nostrils linear, oblique, in the front 
upper corner of the cere, which is truncate and bristly; sides of head 
extensively denuded ; occipital feathers lengthened ; 3d and 4th quill longest, 
Ist shorter than 7th; outer 4-5 emarginate; tarsus almost naked, longer 
than middle toe. Brownish-black, barred on the neck, breast and most of 
the upper parts, with yeilowish-white; auriculars whitish; tail whitish, — 
narrowly black-barred and with broad black terminal zone; primaries like- 
wise barred with whitish; feet yellow; bill greenish-white. Length 283 
wing 15-17; tail about 10. Southern border, Florida to California; a 
remarkable form, allied in some respects to the vultures. Avp., i, 21, pl. 
4; Nurt., i, 52; Cass. in Bp., 45; Coop., 492. THARUS var. AUDUBONII. 


Family CATHARTIDA:. American Vultures. 


Head, and part of the neck, more or less completely bare of feathers; eyes flush 
with the side of the head, not overshadowed by a superciliary shield; ears small 
and simple. Bill lengthened, contracted toward the base, moderately hooked and 
comparatively weak. Nostrils very large, completely perforated, through lack of a 
bony septum. Wings very long, ample and strong; tail moderate. Anterior toes 
long for the order, webbed at base; hind toe elevated, very short; claws compara- 
tively lengthened, obtuse, little curved and weak. To these external characters, 
which distinguish our vultures, I may add, that there are numerous osteological 
peculiarities. A lower larynx is not developed. The capacious gullet dilates into 
an.immense crop. The coca are extremely small. ‘The feathers lack an aftershaft. 


—— = 


_—~ 


CATHARTIDA, AMERICAN VULTURES. 221 


The American vultures differ in so many essential respects from those of the 
Old World, that they should unquestionably rank as a separate family, whatever 
may be the propriety of uniting the others with the Falconide. In a certain sense, 
they represent the gallinaceous type of structure; our species of Cathartes, for 
instance, bear a curious superficial resemblance to a turkey. ‘They lack the strength 
and spirit of typical Raptores, and rarely attack animals capable of offering resist- 
ance; they are voracious and indiscriminate gormandizers of carrion and animal 
refuse of all sorts—efficient and almost indispensable scavengers in the warm 
countries where they abound. They are uncleanly in their mode of feeding; the 
nature of their food renders them ill-scented, and when disturbed they eject the 
feetid contents of the crop. Although not truly gregarious, they assemble in multi- 
tudes where food is plenty, and some species breed in communities. When gorged, 


Tic. U4. Californian Vulture. 


they appear heavy and indisposed to exertion, usually passing the period of diges- 
tion motionless, in a listless attitude, with the wings half-spread. But they spend 
most of the time on wing, circling high in the air; their flight is easy and graceful 
in the extreme, and capable of being indefinitely protracted. On the ground, they 
habitually walk instead of progressing by leaps. Possessing no vocal apparatus, 
the vultures are almost mute, emitting only a weak hissing sound. The plumage in 
Cathartes is sombre and unvaried; its changes are slight; the sexes are alike in 
color; the 9 is not larger than the ¢. The famous condor of the Andes, Surcor- 
hamphus gryphus, the king vulture, S. papa, and the following species of Oathartes, 
with their one or two South American analogues, compose the family. 


222 CATHARTIDM, AMERICAN VULTURES. —GEN. 166. 


166. Genus CATHARTES Illiger. 


Californian Vulture. Brownish-black, lustrous above, paler below; 
secondary quills gray ; greater coverts tipped with white; bill whitish; head 
and neck orange and red; “iris carmine.” Most of the neck, as well as 
the head, naked, with scattered bristle-like feathers, and a feathered patch 
at base of the bill; plumage commencing on the neck, not with a downy 
ruff, as in the condor, but with lengthened lanceolate feathers continued_on 
the breast ; nostrils comparatively small; tail nearly even. Young covered 
with whitish down. Largest of the genus; length about 4 feet; extent 9; 
wing 2%; tail 1$; thus approaching the condor in size. Egg white, 
granular, elliptical, 45 by 23 inches. General habits the same as those of 
the following species. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U.S. <Aup., i, 12, 
pl. 1; Nurr., i, 389; ii, 557; Cass. in Bv., 5; Coop., 496. CALIFORNIANUS. 

Turkey Buzzard. Blackish-brown; quills ashy-gray on their under 
surface; head red; feet flesh-colored; bill white. Skin of the head corra- 
gated, sparsely beset with bristle-like feathers; plumage commencing in a 
circle on the neck; nostrils very large and open; tail rounded. Length 
about 24 feet; extent 6; wing 2; taill. U.S., from Atlantic to Pacifie, 
and somewhat northward ; abundant in more southern portions; resident as 
far north as New Jersey. Nests on the ground, or near it, in hollow stumps 
and logs, generally breeding in communities ; eggs commonly two, creamy 
white, blotched and speckled, 2? by 1§. Wuts., ix, pl. 75, f. 1; Norg., 1, 
43; Aup., i, 15, pl. 2; Cass. in Bp., 4; Coor., 503. >) 

Carrion Crow. Blackish; quills very pale, almost whitish, on the under 
surface ; head dusky; bill and feet grayish-yellow. Skin of the head as in 
the last species, but plumage running up the back of the neck to a point on 
the hind head; nostrils as before; tail square. Smaller than aura, in linear 
dimensions, but a heavier bird; length about 2 feet; wing 14; tail 3. The 
difference in size and shape between this species and aura is strikingly dis- 
played when the birds are flying together, as constantly occurs in the South- 
ern States ; there is also a radical difference in the mode of flight, this species 
never sailing for any distance without flapping the wings. Nesting the same : 
eggs similar, but larger, or at any rate more elongate; 34 by 2. Chiefly 
South Atlantic and Gulf States, there very numerous, far outnumbering the 
turkey buzzard, and semi-domesticated in the towns; N. regularly to North 
Carolina, thence straggling even to Massachusetts (Jillson; Putnam, Proc. 
Essex Inst. 1856, 223) and Maine (Boarpman, Am. Nat. iii, 498) ; Ohio 
(Audubon) ; not authenticated on the Pacific Coast. Wus., ix, pl. 75, 
f.2; Norr., 1, 46; Aup., 1, 1%, plooG (aes. D3. . » ERATE 

Oxs. C. burrovianus Cass. in Bp., 6; Extiot, pl. 36, a doubtful «species, is 
said to inhabit Lower California. From various accounts, it seems probable that 
the king vulture really occurs on our southern border, but this remains to be deter- 


mined. See Barrram, Travels in Florida, p. 150; Cassin in Bp., p. 6; Cougs, 
Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, p. 49; Atxen, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. ii, 1871, p. 313. 


Se ee eC 


COLUMBIDZ, PIGEONS. 223 


Order COLUMBA. Columbine Birds, 


An essential gharacter of birds of this order is seen in the structure of the bill: 
horny and convex at the tip, somewhat contracted in the continuity, furnished at the 
base with a soft swollen membrane in which the nostrils open. There are four toes, 
three anterior, generally cleft, but occasionally with a slight basal web, and one 
behind, with few exceptions perfectly insistent or not obviously elevated. The feet 
are never lengthened ; the tarsus is commonly shorter than the toes, either scutellate 
or extensively feathered anteriorly, reticulate on the sides and behind, the envelope 
rather membranous than corneous. The plumage is destitute of aftershafts. The 
syrinx has one pair of intrinsic muscles. There are two carotids. The sternum is 
doubly notched, or notched and fenestrate ; there are other osteological characters. 
The regimen is exclusively vegetarian. Terrestrial progression gradient, never 
saltatory. As commonly accepted, the order is composed of three families. The 
strange dodo, Didus ineptus, recently extinct, represents one, Didide; another, 
Diduneulide, consists of the only less singular tooth-billed pigeon, Didunculus strigi- 
rostris, of the Navigator Islands; the third is the Columbide. Some, like Lillje- 
borg, enlarge the order, under name of Pullastre, to receive the Cracide (see 
beyond), and Megapodide, big-feet or mound-birds of the East Indies; mainly on 
account, it would appear, of the position of the hallux in these families; but the 
balance of evidence favors their reference to the gallinaceous birds. There is no 
question that the columbine are very closely related to the rasorial birds, but it 
seems best to draw the line between them as above indicated; and I shall accord- 
ingly close the great Insessorial series with the 


Family COLUMBIDZ. Pigeons. 


The family may be framed simply by exclusion of the Didunculidw and Didide. 
With one exception, all our species will be immediately recognized by their likeness 
to the familiar inmates of the dove-cot. One seemingly trivial circumstance is so 
constant as to become a good clue to these birds: the frontal feathers do not form 
antiz by extension on either side of the culmen, but sweep across the base of the 
bill with a strongly convex outline projected on the culmen, thence rapidly retreat- 
ing to the commissural point. The plumuleless plumage is generally compact, with 
thickened, spongy rhachis, the insertion of which will seem loose to one who skins 
a bird of this family. The head is remarkably small; the neck moderate; the 
body full, especially in the pectoral region. The wings are strong, generally 
lengthened and pointed, conferring a rapid, powerful, whistling flight ; the peculiar 
aerial evolutions that these birds are wont to perform, have furnished a synonym for 
the family, Gyrantes. The tail varies in shape, from square to graduate, but is 
never forked; as a rule there are 12 rectrices, frequently increased to 14, rarely 
to 16. ‘The feet show considerable modification when the strictly arboricole are 
compared with the more terrestrial species; their general character has just been 
indicated. The gizzard is large and muscular, particularly in the species that feed 
on seeds and other hard fruits; the gullet dilates to form a capacious circumscribed 
crop. This organ at times secretes a peculiar milky fluid, which, mixed with 
macerated food, is poured by regurgitation directly into the mouth of the young; 
thus the fabled ‘* pigeon’s milk” has a strong spice of fact, and in this remarkable 
circumstance we see probably the nearest approach, among birds, to the character- 


224. COLUMBIDA, PIGEONS. 


istic function of mammalia. ‘The voice of the turtle is heard in the land” as a 
plaintive cooing, so characteristic as to have afforded another name for the family, 
Gemitores. Pigeons are altricial, and monogamous — doubly monogamous, as is said 
when both sexes incubate and care for the young; this is a strong trait, compared 
with the preecocial and often polygamous nature of rasorial birds. They are amorous 
birds whose passion generally restlts in a tender and constant devotion, edifying to 
contemplate, but is often marked by high irascibility and pugnacity —traits at 
variance with the amiable meekness which doves are supposed to symbolize. The 
nest, as arule, is a rude, frail, flat structure of twigs; the eggs are usually two in 
number, sometimes one, white. 


“The entire number of pigeons known to exist is about 300; of these the 
Malay Archipelago already counts 118, while only 28 are found in India, 23 in Aus- 
tralia, less than 40 in Africa, and not more than 80 in the whole of America.” 
They focus in the small district of which New Guinea is the centre, where more 
than a fourth of the species occur. Mr. Wallace accounts for this by the absence 
of fruit-eating forest mammals, such as monkeys and squirrels; and finds in the 
converse the reason why pigeons are so scarce in the Amazon valley, and there 
chiefly represented by species feeding much on the ground and breeding in the 
bushes lower than monkeys habitually descend.° ‘‘In the Malay countries, also, 
there are no great families of fruit-eating Passeres, and their place seems to be 
taken by the true fruit-pigeons, which, unchecked by rivals or enemies, often form with 
the Psittaci the prominent and characteristic features of the Avifauna.” (N»ewrTon.) 


There are three prominent groups of pigeons. The Treronine are exclusively 
frugivorous and arboricole species, with short, soft, broad-soled and extensively 
feathered feet, 14 rectrices, and soft lustreless plumage, of which green is the 
characteristic color. These are all Old World; the genera are Teron and Ptilono- 
pus, with their subdivisions; ‘54 species are confined to the Austro-Malayan, 
while 28 inhabit the Indo-Malayan, subregion ; in India 14, and in Africa 6 species 
are found; 30 inhabit the Pacific Islands, and 8 occur in Australia or New Zealand, 
while New Guinea has 14 species.” (Wartacr.) The Gourine are more or less 
terrestrial species, of both hemispheres, embracing a considerable number of more 
varied generic forms. In the New Guinean Goura coronata there are 16 rectrices, 
and the head is crested; in the singular Calenas nicobarica, feathers of the upper 
parts are acuminate, elongate and even pendulous; each of these is sometimes 
made the type of a family. There are several other Old World forms, such as 
Trugon, Phaps, Henicophaps, Geophaps, Lophophaps, Ocyphaps and Chalcophaps ; 
our genus Starnenas is an interesting American one. The Columbine are the 
least specialized and most generally distributed group, comprising numerous species 
of which the domestic pigeon (Columba livia) is a type. Of these the Australian 
Lopholemus antarcticus, if really belonging here, is one of the most peculiar; 
Carpophaga and Turtur are leading Old World genera. The North American 
genera, excepting the first two following, are probably Gouwrine in the current 
acceptation of that term; but in the uncertainty attending its precise limitation as 
compared with Columbine, I shall not attempt to distinguish subfamilies. In gen. 
167-8 the tarsi are short and slightly feathered above, a characteristic of arboricole 
pigeons ; in the rest, longer. and entirely naked, as usual in the terrestrial species ; 
and in many of these there is a naked space above the eyes. The males of nearly 
all our species show a beautiful iridescence on the neck; the sexes are distinguish- 
able by color; the young resembles the female. 


COLUMBID®, PIGEONS. —GEN. 167, 168. 225 


167. Genus COLUMBA Linneus. 


Band-tailed Pigeon. Ashy-blue, tinged with olive on the back; head, 
neck and under parts purplish, whitening on the belly ; hind neck metallic 
golden, with a conspicuous white collar; tail with a dark bar, beyond this 
brownish-white ; bill and feet yellow, former black-tipped: @ and young 
less or not purplish, the nuchal band often obscure or wanting; 15; wing 
83; tail 64, nearly even; tarsus 1, feathered above. Rocky Mountains to 
the Pacific, U. S. and southward; common. Bonar., Am. Orn. i, 77, pl. 8; 
Worr., i, 624; Aup., iv, 312, pl. 279; Bp., 597; Coop., 506. . FascraTa. 

Red-billed Pigeon. Slaty-blue, olive on the back and scapulars ; head and 
neck all round, breast and wing-patch, chocolate-red ; no nuchal iridescence ; 
“pill, feet and eyes, purple ;” 14; wing 8; tail 5?. Mexico, to U.S. border ; 
Cape St. Lucas. Lawe., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. 1851, 116; Bp., 598, pl. 61; 
eee. | l,l. CCCs SC, FLAVIROSTRIS. 

White-crowned Pigeon. Dark slaty-blue, paler below; crown pure white ; 
hind neck purplish-brown, lower down metallic golden, each feather black- 
edged ; iris white; bill and feet reddish, former blue-tipped ; 134; wing 74; 
tail 54; @ similar. West Indies and Florida Keys. Bonar., Am. Orn. ii, 11, 
pl. 15; Nourr., i, 625; Aup., iv, 315, pl. 280; Bp., 599. LEUCOCEPHALA. 


168. Genus ECTOPISTES Swainson. 

Wild Pigeon. Adult g dull blue with olivaceous tinge on back, below 
dull purplish-red whitening on vent and crissum; sides of neck golden and 
ruby ; some wing coverts black-spotted ; quills blackish, with slaty, whitish 
and rufous edging; middle tail feathets bluish-black, the others white or 


SS = 


Fic. 145. Wild Pigeon. 


ashy, the inner webs basally black with a chestnut patch; bill black; feet 

yellow; @ and young duller and more brownish or olivaceous above, below 

dull grayish, with a tawny tinge anteriorly, or quite gray ; very young have 

the feathers-skirted with whitish; 15-17; wing 7-8; tail about the same, 

cuneate, of 12 narrow acuminate feathers. “Wanders continually in search 
KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 29 


226 COLUMBIDZ, PIGEONS.—GEN. 169, 170, 171, 172. 


of food throughout all parts of North America; wonderfully abundant at 
times in particular districts” (Audubon); chiefly, however, temperate 
Eastern North America; eminently gregarious. Wuts., v, 102, pl. 44; 
Nutt., i, 629; Aup., v, 25, pl. 285; Bp., 600. . . . . MiGma@nomeme 


169. Genus ZENADURA Bonaparte. 


Carolina Dove. Brownish-olive, glossed with blue on the crown and 
nape; below purplish-red, becoming tawny-white on the vent and crissum ; 
; neck metallic golden; a velvety black 
spot on the auriculars, and others on 
the wing coverts and scapulars ; middle 
tail feathers like the back, the rest 
ashy-blue at base, then crossed by a 
black bar, then white or ashy-white ; 
bill very slender, black ; feet carmine ; 
g and young differ as in the wild 
pigeon; 11-13; wing 5-6; tail 6-7, 
shaped as in the wild pigeon, but of 
14 feathers; circumorbital space naked. Temperate North America, very 
abundant. Wuzs., v, 91, a 43; Norr., 1, 626; AuD., Vv, 66; pieaome 
BpD,,, "604... “¢ alle rrr 


Fic. 146. Carolina Dove. 


170. Genus ZENADA Bonaparte. 


Zenaida Dove. Olive-gray with a reddish tinge, crown and under parts 
vinaceous-red, sides and axillars bluish; a velvety black auricular spot, and 
others on the wing coverts and tertiaries; secondaries tipped with white ; 
neck with metallic lustre; middle tail feathers like the back, others bluish 
with whiter tips, a black band intervening; 10; wing 6; tail 4, rounded. 
West Indies and Florida Keys. Bonar., Am. Orn. ii, pl. 15, f. 2; Nurr., 
i, 625; Aup., v,d, pl. 281; Bpo., 602. . . . | + ©. sip uueeeenee 


171. Genus MELOPELEIA Bonaparte. 


White-winged Dove. A broad oblique white bar on the wing, formed by 
ends of greater coverts and alula. Tail feathers, except the middle, broadly 
tipped with white; general plumage resembling that of the Carolina dove ; 
11-12; wing 6-64; tail 5, rounded. Southwestern U. 8. and southward. 
Columba trudeaui Aup., vii, 352, pl. 496. Bp., 603. . . LEUCOPTERA. 


172. Genus CHAMA!PELEIA Swainson. 


Ground Dove. Grayish-olive, glossed with blue on the hind head and 
neck, most feathers of the fore parts with darker edges, those of the breast 
with dusky centres; forehead, sidés of head and neck, lesser wing coverts 
and under parts purplish-red of variable intensity, paler or grayish in the 9 ; 
under surface of wings orange-brown or chestnut, this color suffusing the 
quills to a great extent, upper surface sprinkled with lustrous steel-blue 


_ 


COLUMBIDZ, PIGEONS.—GEN. 173, 174, 175. 227 


spots; middle tail feathers like the back, others bluish-black ; feet yellow ; 
bill yellow with dark tip; diminutive; 6-63; wing 34, with inner second- 
aries nearly as long as the primaries; tail 23, rounded. Southern U. S., 
Atlantic to Pacific, but chiefly coastwise ; N. to the Carolinas, and accident- 
ally to Washington, D.C; common. Wruts., iv, 15, pl. 46; Nurr., i, 635; 
Aup., v, 19, pl. 283; Bp., 606; Coor., 516. Var. pallescens Bp., Proc. 
Phila. Acad. 1859, 305; Coop., 517; Cape St. Lucas. . . -PASSERINA. 


173. Genus SCARDAFELLA Bonaparte. 


Scaly Dove. General coloration much as in the ground dove, but all the 
body-feathers with sharp dark border producing a scaled appearance ; tail 
long and cuneate, with (14?) narrow acuminate feathers, as in the common 
dove, broadly tipped with white, except the middle pair; wing shaded as in 
the ground dove. Small; 8; wing and tail about 4. Mexico to U. S. 
border. Bp., 605; Exxior, pl. 37; Coop., 519. . sQuamosa var. INCA. 


174. Genus GEOTRYGON Gosse. 


Key West Dove. Above, vinaceous-red with highly iridescent lustre of 
various tints; below pale purplish fading to creamy; an infraocular stripe 
and the throat white; 11; wing and tail about 6, latter rounded. ,West 
Indies and Key West. Columba montana, Avp., v, 14, pl. 282. Nurr., 
DrCUr. Wi.) 5 - « 1 « 1s © fl fhUthlU™hUe)6UMARTINICA. 


175. Genus STARNGNAS Bonaparte. 


Blue-headed Ground Dove. Crown rich blue bounded by black ; a white 
stripe under the eye meeting its fellow on the chin; throat black, bordered 
with white; general color olivaceous-chocolate above, purplish-red below, 
lighter centrally; 11; wing 54; tail 44. West Indies and Florida Keys. 
A remarkable form, grading towards the gallinaceous birds in structure and 
habits; bill short; wings and tail very short, former rounded and concave, 
latter nearly even; legs very long and stout; tarsus bare, reticulate; hind 
toe not strictly insistent. Avup., v, 23, pl. 284; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 769; 
Res sll Cw] CtCCCCSCS~SC OY ANOGEPHALA. 


228 GALLINE, GALLINACEOUS BIRDS. 


Subclass II, AVES TERRESTRES, or CURSORES, 
TERRESTRIAL BIRDS. 


This second series includes all living birds, between the Columbe and the Lam- 
ellirostres, excepting, probably, the ostriches and their allies. Like the other two 
divisions called ‘‘ subclasses” in the present work, it is insusceptible of definition 
by characters of more than the slightest morphological importance, and conse- 
quently has nothing of the taxonomic value commonly attaching to groups so 
named. It may be considered, however, to represent the teleological generalization, 
that a certain number of birds, differing greatly in structure, are collectively 
modified in a way that fits them for similar modes of life—that several different 
types of structure are bent to subserve a particular end. In a certain sense, there- 
fore the Cursores may be said to hold together more by analogical relationship 
than by special morphological affinity ; and among them there is certainly greater 
diversity of structure than that existing between some of them and the birds 
standing upon the confines of Jnsessores and Natatores. On the one hand, the 
gallinaceous birds shade directly into the columbine, while on the other, the 
Grallatores are perfectly linked with the Natatores by means of the flamingoes. 
As implied in their name, the birds of this series are especially terrestrial in habit, 
spending most of the time on the ground, not on trees or the water; although most 
of them fly vigorously, and some swim well. A character of general applicability 
is the combination of long or strong legs (as compared with Jnsessores), with the 
freedom of the knee and lower thigh from the body (as compared with Natatores). 
The hallux as a rule is reduced in length and elevated in position, and is often 
absent altogether—a modification rarely found outside this group; the front toes 
are generally webbed at base, often cleft, occasionally lobed or even full-webbed. 
Excluding the struthious birds, which cannot well be brought into this connection, 


the series represents two commonly received orders. 


Order GALLINA. Gallinaceous Birds, 


Equivalent to the old order Rasores, exclusive of the pigeons— this name being 
derived from the characteristic habit of scratching the ground in search of food ; 
connecting the lower terrestrial pigeons with the higher members of the great 
plover-snipe group. On the one hand, it shades into the Columbe so perfectly that 
Huxley has proposed to call the two together the ‘‘ Gallo-columbine series ;” on 
the other hand, some of its genera show a strong plover-ward tendency, and have 


even been placed in Limicole. 'The birds of this family are more or less perfectly 


——s ~~ ~ 


i 


GALLINZ, GALLINACEOUS BIRDS. 229 


terrestrial ; the legs are of mean length, and stout; the toes four (with rare excep- 
tions), three in front, generally connected by basal webbing, but sometimes free, 
and one behind, almost always short and elevated, occasionally absent. The tibize 
are rarely naked below; the tarsi often feathered, as the toes also sometimes are ; 
but ordinarily both these are naked, scutellate and reticulate, and often developing 
processes (spurs) of horny substance with a bony core, like the horns of cattle. 
The bill as a rule is short, stout, convex and obtuse; never cered, nor extensively 
membranous; the base of the culmen parts prominent antiz, which frequently fill 
the nasal fossz ; when naked the nostrils show a superincumbent scale. The head is 
frequently naked, wholly or partly, and often develops remarkable fleshy processes. 
The wings are short, stout and concave, conferring power of rapid, whirring, but 
unprotracted, flight. The tail varies extremely; it is entirely wanting in some 
genera, enormously developed in others; the rectrices vary in number, but are 
commonly more than twelve. The sternum, with certain exceptions, shows a 
peculiar conformation; the posterior notches seen in most birds, are inordinately 
enlarged, so that the bone, viewed vertically, seems in most of its extent to be 
simply a narrow central projection, with two long backward processes on each side, 
the outer commonly hammer-shaped ; this form is modified in the tinamous, curas- 
sows, mound-birds and sand-grouse, and not at all shown in the hoazin. The palate 
is schizognathous ; there are cther distinctive osteological characters. As a rule, the 
digestive system presents an ample special crop, a highly muscular gizzard, and 
large coeca ; ‘‘ the inferior larynx is always devoid of intrinsic muscles” (Hualey). 
Excepting the Pteroclide (?), there are aftershafts, and a circlet around the oil-gland. 
Galline are precocial. A part of them are polygamous — a circumstance shown in its 
perfection by the sultan of the dunghill with his disciplined harem; and in all such 
the sexes are conspicuously dissimilar. The rest are monogamous, and the sexes of 
these are as a rule nearly or quite alike. The eggs are very numerous, usually laid 
on the ground, in a rude nest, or none. The order is cosmopolitan ; but most of its 
groups haye a special geographical distribution ; its great economic importance is 
perceived in all forms of domestic poultry, and principal game-birds of various 
countries; and it is unsurpassed in beauty—some of these birds offer the most 
gorgeous coloring of the class. The characters of the order have been ably 
exposed by Blanchard, Parker, Huxley and other distinguished anatomists. I 
will briefly recount the exotic families. 


1. The tinamous, Tinamide, are so remarkably distinguished by certain cranial 
characters that Huxley was induced to make them one of his four primary divisions 
of carinate birds. The palate is “‘completely struthious;” the sternum has a 
singular conformation. An obvious external feature, in many cases, is the entire 
lack of tail feathers (only elsewhere wanting among grebes) ; in others, however, 
these are developed. Confined to Central and South America, and represented by 
about forty species, of six or eight genera. 


2. ‘The wonderful hoazin of Guiana, Opisthocomus cristatus, is the sole repre- 
sentative of a family Opisthocomide, one of the most isolated and puzzling forms 
in ornithology, sometimes placed near the Musophagide, but assigned by maturer 
judgment to the fowls, which it resembles in most respects. The sternum and 
shoulder-girdle are anomalous; the keel is cut away in front; the furcula anchylose 
with the coracoids (very rare) and with the manubrium of the sternum (unique) ; 
the digestive system is scarcely less singular. 


3. The bush-quails of the Old World, Twrnicide, differ widely from other 


230 GALLINZ, GALLINACEOUS BIRDS. 


Galline, resembling the sand-grouse and tinamous in some respects, and related to 
the plovers in others. A singular circumstance is a lack of the extensive vertebral 
anchyloses usual in birds, all the vertebrae remaining distinct (Parker). The crop 
is said to be wanting in some, as is also the hind toe. There are some twenty 
current species of the principal genus, Turniz, to which Gray adds the African 
Ortyxelos meiffrenti, and the Australian Pedionomus torquatus; the latter is placed, 
by some, with the Gralle. 


4, The sand-grouse, Pteroclide, inosculate with the pigeons, as the Turnicidce 
do with the plovers. The digestive system is fowl-like; the sternum in Pteroeles 
departs from the rasorial type to approach the columbine, the modification being 
even more marked than in the next family; the pterylosis is pigeon-like, lacking 
aftershafts (Hualey), or having small ones (Nitzsch). The wings are very long and 
pointed, the feet short, with reduced hallux, and variable feathering. Confined to 
Europe, Asia and Africa: the principal genus, Pterocles, has about a dozen species ; 
the only other, Syrrhaptes, has two. 


5. The mound-birds, Megapodide, as the name implies, have large feet, with 
little curved claws, and lengthened insistent hallux. They share this last feature 
with the Cracide (beyond) ; and the osseous structure of these two families, except 
as regards pneumaticity, is strikingly similar. Both show a modification of the 
sternum, the inner one of the two notches being less instead of more than half as 
deep as the sternum is long, as in typical Galline. Confined to Australia and the 
East Indies; Megapodius is the principal genus, of a dozen or more species; there 
are three others, each of a species or two. 


6. The guinea-fowl, Numidide, of which a species, Numida meleagris, is com- 
monly seen in domestication, are an African and Madagascan type. While the 
foregoing families are strongly specialized, this one, like the turkey family, more 
closely approaches the true fowl, and both may be only subfamilies of Phasianida. 
The bones of the pinion have a certain peculiarity ; the frontal generally develops 
a protuberance ; there are wattles, but no spurs; the tail is very short; the head 
naked. There are six or eight species of Nwmida, in some of which the trachea is 
convoluted in an appendage to the furcula; Acryllium vulturina, Agelastes melea- 
grides and Phasidus niger, are the remaining ones. 


7. Finally, we reach the Phasianide, or pheasants, a magnificent family of 
typical Gallinee, of which the domestic fowl is a characteristic example. These 
birds do not show any of the foregoing special characters ; the feet, nasal fossz, 
and usually a part, if not the whole, of the head, are naked; the tarsi commonly 
develop spurs; the hallux is elevated; the tail, with or without its coverts, some- 
times has an extraordinary development or a remarkable shape. There are fifty or 
sixty species, distributed in numerous modern genera, about twelve of which are 
well marked ; they are all indigenous to Asia and neighboring islands, focussing in 
India. In the peacock, Pavo cristatus, the tail coverts form a superb train, capable 
of erection into a disk, the most gorgeous object in ornithology ; in an allied genus, 
Polyplectron, there are a pair of spurs on each leg. The argus pheasant, Argusanus 
giganteus, is distinguished by the enormous development of the secondary quills, as 
well as by the length of the tail feathers and peculiarity of the middle pair. The 
combed, wattled and spurred barn-yard fowl, with folded tail and flowing middle 
feathers, are descendants of Gallus bankiva, type of a small genus. The trago- 
pans, Cereornis, are an allied form with few species; the macartneys, Huplocomus, 
with a dozen species, are another near form, as are the impeyans, Lophophorus, 


CRACIDE, GUANS. MELEAGRIDEH, TURKEYS.—GEN. 176, 177. 231 


with a slender aigrette on the head, like a peacock’s. The naturalized English 
pheasant, P. colchicus, introduced into Britain prior to A. D. 1056, is the type of 
Phasianus, in which the tail feathers are very long and narrow; in one species, 
P. reevesii, the tail is said to attain a length of six feet. The golden and 
Amherstian pheasants, Chrysolophus pictus and amherstie, are singularly beautiful, 
even for this group. The other genera are Crossoptilon and Pucrasia. New species 
are still coming to light. 


Family CRACIDA. Curassows. Guans. 


This type is peculiar to America, where it may be considered to represent the Mega- 
podide, though differing so much in habit and general appearance. The affinities 
of the two are indicated above, and some essential characters noted. According to 
the latest authority on the family, Messrs. Sclater and Salvin, it is divisible into 
three subfamilies: Cracine, curassows and hoccos, with four genera and 
twelve species; Oreophasinee, with a single species, Oreophasis derbianus, and the 

: 


Subfamily PENELOPIN, Guans, 


with seven genera and thirty-nine species, one of which reaches our border. 


176. Genus ORTALIDA Merrem. 


Texan Guan. Chiacalaca. Wead crested, its sides, and strips on the 
chin, naked, but no wattles ; tarsi naked, scutellate ; hind toe insistent, about 
% the middle toe; tail graduated, longer than the wings, of 12 feathers. 
Length nearly 2 feet; wing 84 inches; tail 11; tarsus 2; middle toe the 
same. Dark olivaceous, paler and tinged with brownish-yellow below, 
plumbeous on the head; tail green, tipped with white except on the middle 
pair of feathers; bill and feet plumbeous. Mexico, to Texas. O. vetula 
Lawe., Ann. Lye. N. Y. 1851, 116; O. poliocephala Cass., Ill. 267, pl. 44; 
ee 8 2 1109 09. 


Family MELEAGRIDA. Turkeys. 


Head and upper neck naked, carunculate; in our species with a dewlap and 
erectile process. Tarsi naked, scutellate before and behind, spurred in the @. 
Tail broad, rounded, of 14-18 feathers. Plumage compact, lustrous; in our species 
with a tuft of hair-like feathers on the breast. One genus, two species. M. ocella- 
tus is a very beautiful species of Central America. 


“a 


177. Genus MELEAGRIS Linnzus. 


Turkey. Upper tail coverts chestnut, with paler or whitish tips; tail 
feathers tipped with brownish-yellow or whitish ; 3-4 feet long, etc. Wild 
in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and southward; domesticated elsewhere. 
There is reason to believe that the Mexican bird is the original of the 
domestic race; it was upon this form, imported into Europe, that Linneus 
imposed the name gallopavo (Fn. Suec. No. 198; Syst. Nat. i, 1766, 268), 
which has generally been applied to the following feral variety. MM. 


~ —— 


232- TETRAONIDA, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES. —GEN. 178. 


mexicana GOULD, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856, 61; Bp., 618; Extxror, pl. 38; 
Coop., 523.0 2 2 8 ee a a is rea 


Var. AMERICANA Bart., Trav. 1791, 290. Gallopavo sylvestris Lm Contr, Proc. 
Phila. Acad. 1857,179 ; M. gallopavo Aup., v, 42, pls. 287, 288; Nurv.,i, 630; Bo., 
615. Upper tail coverts without light tips, and ends of tail feathers scarcely paler. 
This is the ordinary wild turkey of Eastern North America; N. to Canada, where 
it is said still to occur; apparently extirpated in New England. N.W. to the 
Missouri, and $.W. to Texas (Audubon). The slight differences just noted seem to 
be remarkably constant, and to be rarely, if ever, shown by the other form, although, 
as usual in domestic birds, this last varies interminably in color. 


Family TETRAONIDZ. Grouse, etc. 


All the remaining gallinaceous birds are very closely related, and they will prob- 
ably constitute a single family, although the term Tetraonide is usually restricted 
to the true grouse as below defined ( Tetraonine), the partridges being erected into 
another family, Perdicide, with several subfamilies. But the grouse do not appear 
to differ more from the partridges than these do from each other, and they are all 
variously interrelated; so that no violence will be offered in uniting them. One 
group of the partridges is confined to America; all the rest to the Old World. The 
leading forms among the latter are Perdix, the true partridge; Cotwrnia, the true 
quail; Francolinus, the francolins; with Rollulus and Caccabis. In all, perhaps 
a hundred species and a dozen genera. Without attempting to frame a family 
diagnosis to cover all their modifications, I will precisely define the American forms, 
as two subfamilies. 


Subfamily TETRAONINA. Grouse. 


Head completely feathered, excepting, usually, a naked strip of skin over the 
eye. Nasal fossee densely feathered. Tarsi more or less perfectly feathered, the 
feathering sometimes extending on the toes to the claws ; the toes, when naked, with 
fringe-like processes. ‘Tail variable in shape, but never folded, of 16-20 feathers. 
Sides of the neck frequently with lengthened or otherwise modified feathers, or a 
bare distensible skin, or both. 

The true grouse are confined to the northern hemisphere, and reach their highest 
development, as a group, in North America, where singularly varied forms occur. 
The only Old World species are—the great Tetrao wrogallus, or capercailzie of 
Europe, and its allied Asiatic species; Tetrao tetrix, the ‘‘ black game” of Europe, 
with curiously curled tail feathers; Tetrao falcipennis of Siberia, the represen- 
tative of our spruce partridge ; Bonasa betulina of Northern Europe and Asia, like 
our ruffed grouse; and two or three species of ptarmigan (Lagopus). 


178. Genus TETRAO Linneus. 


*.* No peculiar feathers on the neck; tarsus feathered to the toes; tail mod- 
erate, little rounded, of 16-20 broad feathers. Woodland birds of northerly or 
alpine distribution. Our species differ materially from the European capercailzie, 
T. urogallus, type of the genus, and might be properly separated. 

* Tail normally of 16 (14-18) feathers. (Canace.) 

Canada Grouse. Spruce Partridge. & below mostly black with 
numerous white spots; above, vermiculated with blackish and slate, and 


TETRAONIDE, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES. —GEN. 179, 180. 233 


usually some tawny, especially ou the wings; quills variegated with tawny ; 
tail with a terminal orange-brown band, its upper coverts plain; 15-17; 
wing 7; tail 5; Q rather less, no con- 
tinuous black below, but variegated 
with blackish, white and tawny; above, 
much as in the ¢, but more tawny. N. 
Am., northerly; in Brit. Am., W. to 
Alaska; in U. S., W. to Rocky Mts. ; 
S. into the northern tier of states; 
Maine, and casually to Massachusetts. 
Notr., i, 667; Aup., v, 83, pl. 294; 
eee SC CSC. SCC ANADENSIS. 


Var. FRANKLINU. Tail less rounded, 
lacking the terminal orange-brown band, 
and its upper coverts conspicuously white-tipped. Rocky and Cascade Mts., U. S. 
Bp., 623; Coop., 529. 

** Tail normally of 20 (18-22?) feathers. (Dendragapus.) 

Dusky Grouse. ¢% blackish, more or less variegated with slate-gray, or 
a peculiar slaty-black; throat and sides marked with white; breast black ; 
belly slate; tail clouded with slate and black, and with a broad terminal 
slate bar; 18-20; wing 9-10; tail 7-8; ¢ smaller, not particularly different 
in color, but not so uniformly dark, having ochrey or reddish-brown variega- 
tion in places. Rocky and other Mountains, U. S. to the Pacific. Nurr., 
Renu. v, oF, pl. 295; Bp., 620; Coop., 526. . . . OBSCURUS. 

Var. ricHarpsonu. Tail nearly square, entirely black, or with only a slight 
slate tipping. Central Rocky Mountains and northward. Coopr., 582. 


Fic. 147. Canada Grouse. 


179. Genus CENTROCERCUS Swainson. 


Sage Cock. Cock of the Plains. Tail very long, equalling or exceeding 
the wings, of twenty stiffened, graduated, narrowly acuminate feathers ; 
sides of lower neck with a patch of peculiar sharp scaly feathers, the shafts 
of which terminate in bristly filaments, sometimes 3-4 inches long in the 
g ; tarsi full feathered. Very large; two feet or more long, wing and tail 
each about a foot; @ much smaller. Above, variegated with black, gray 
and tawny; below, a large black abdominal patch in the adult. Confined to 
the sterile plains and sage-brush (Artemisia) tracts of Western U.S.; 
S. to about 35° (Mojave river; Cooper). Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 358, 
pl. 58; Norr., i, 666; Aup., v, 106, pl. 297; Bp., 624. UROPHASIANUS. 


180. Genus PEDIG@(CETES Baird. 


* ,* Neck without peculiar feathers; tail very short, of sixteen narrow, soft, true 
rectrices, and a middle pair, apparently developed coverts, projecting an inch 
beyond the rest; tarsi fully feathered. Length about 18; wing 8-9; tail 5-6. 
Below, white, with numerous dark marks; above, variegated with blackish and 
white, or tawny; quills dusky, with white or tawny spots on the outer web; 
central tail feathers like the back, others white on the inner web. Sexes alike. 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 50 


234 TETRAONIDE, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES.—GEN. 181. 


Northern Sharp-tailed Grouse. The markings black, white and dark 
brown, with little or no tawny; spots on the under parts numerous, blackish, 
V-shaped; throat white, speckled. Arctic America; not S. to the U.S. 
Tetrao phasianellus Linn., Syst. Nat. i, 160; Exxior, Proc. Phila. Acad. 
1862, 403. P. kennicottti Suckxiey, ibid. 1861, 361. . PHASIANELLUS. 

Var. cotumBiANus. Common Sharp-tailed Grouse. The markings black, white, 
and especially tawny; below, the spots fewer, brown, U-shaped; throat buff. 
T. phasianellus Nourr., i, 669; Avp., v, 110, pl. 298. Bp., 626. P. columbianus 
Exot, J. c.; Coor., 582. This is the ordinary U. S. bird, abundant on the prairies 
from Wisconsin and Kansas westward. It is accurately discriminated from the 
dark northern form by Dr. Suckley and Mr. Elliot, who, however, incorrectly 
suppose that the two forms are distinct species; they are geographical races 
differing from each other according to well known laws of climatic variation. 


181. Genus CUPIDONIA Reichenbach. 

Pinnated Grouse. Prairie Hen. Neck with a peculiar tuft of loose, 
lengthened, acuminate feathers, beneath which is a patch of bare, brightly 
colored skin, capable of great distension ; tail short, rounded, of eighteen 
stiffish, not acuminate, feathers; tarsi barely feathered to the toes. Length 
16-18; wing 8-9; tail about 5. Above, variegated with black, brown, 
tawny or ochrey, and white, the latter especially on the wings; below, 
pretty regularly barred with dark brown, white and tawny; throat tawny, 
a little speckled, or not; vent and crissum mostly white ; quills fuscous, with 
white spots on the outer webs; tail fuscous, with narrow or imperfect white 
or tawny bars and tips; sexes alike in color, but 9 smaller, with shorter 


a LA 
BEEZ LAA gad 


Fic. 148. Foot of Prairie Hea. 


neck-tufts. This well known bird formerly ranged across the United States, 
in open country, from the Atlantic to the Eastern foothills of the Rocky 
Mountains, and now abounds on the prairies, from Illinois and Wisconsin, 
to Middle Kansas at least, if not found on the dryer plains westward. It 
has been almost extirpated in the Middle and Eastern States, though 
it still occurs sparingly in isolated localities in New York, New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, Long Island, Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard, ete. Its 
abundance, and the excellence of its flesh, render it an object of commercial 
importance. Though there may be little probability of its extinction, legis- 
lation against its wanton or ill-timed destruction would be a measure of 
obvious propriety. Wus., ili, 104, pl. 27; Nutrt., i, 662; Aup., v, 93, 
pl. 296; Bp., 628... band. sehen ae © Sais: | nee 


TETRAONID/H, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES.—GEN. 182, 183. 235 


182. Genus BONASA Stephens. 


Ruffed Grouse. Partridge; New England and Middle States. Pheasant ; 
Southern States. Sides of the neck with a tuft of numerous (15-30), 
broad, soft, glossy-black feathers ; head with a full soft crest ; tail about as 
long as the wings, amply rounded, of (normally) eighteen soft broad 
feathers ; tarsi naked below. Length 
16-18; wing 7-8. Sexes nearly 
alike; variegated reddish- or gray- 
ish-brown, the back with numerous, 
oblong, pale, black-edged spots; 
below, whitish barred with brown; 
tail with a broad subterminal black 
zone, and tipped with gray. <A 
woodland bird, like the species of 
Tetrao, abundantly distributed over 
Eastern North America, well known 
under the above names in different sections; but it is neither a partridge nor 
a pheasant. The “drumming” sound for which this bird is noted, is not 
vocal, as some suppose, but is produced by rapidly beating the wings 
together, or against some hard object, as a fallen log. Wmuts., vi, 46, pl. 
493) Nurr., 1,657; Avp., v, pl. 293, 72; Bp., 630. . . . UMBELLUS. 

Var. uMBELLOIDEs. Pale; slaty-gray the prevailing shade. Rocky Mountain 
region. Dovexas, Linn. Trans. xvi, 1829, 148; Bp., 925. 

Var. sapiner. Dark; chestnut-brown the prevailing shade. Pacific Coast 
region. Dovetas, ibid. 137; Bp., 631; Coopr., 540. 


Fic. 149. Ruffed Grouse. 


183. Genus LAGOPUS Vieillot. 


* .* No peculiar feathers on neck; tarsi and toes densely feathered ; tail short, 
little rounded, normally of 14 broad feathers, with long upper coverts, some of 
which resemble rectrices. Boreal and alpine grouse, shaped nearly as in Canace, 
remarkable for the seasonal changes of plumage, becoming in winter snow-white. 
There are only five or six species, at most, and probably fewer; we certainly 
have the three here given. 

Willow Ptarmigan. Tail black; no black stripe on head; bill very 
_ stout, culmen #, or more, its depth at base as much as the distance from 
nasal fossa to tip. In summer, the fore parts rich chestnut or orange-brown, 
variegated with blackish, the upper parts and sides barred with blackish, 
tawny and white; most other parts white. 15-17; wing 8; tail 5. British 
America, into northernmost U.S. Norr., i, 674; Avp., v, 114, pl. 299; 
Bp., 633. JL. salceti Sw. and Ricu., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 351. . . ALBUS. 

Ftock Ptarmigan. Tail black; g with a black transocular stripe; bill 
slenderer, culmen about %, depth at base less than distance from nasal fossa 
to tip. In summer, the general plumage irregularly banded with black, 
reddish-yellow, and white. Rather smaller than the foregoing. Arctic 


236 TETRAONIDE, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES.—GEN. 184. 


America. Sw. and Ricu., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 354, pl. 64; Nurvr., i, 610; 
Aup., v, 122, pl. 301; Bp., 635. ?ZL. americanus Aup., v, 119, pl. 300; 
based on Z. mutus Sw. and Ricu., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 350. . RUPESTRIS. 

White-tailed Ptarmigan. Tail white at all seasons; in winter, no black 
anywhere ; in summer, barred with dark brown and ochrey; bill slender, 
and other proportions nearly as in the last. A species of alpine distribution 
in western North America, from the Arctic regions to New Mexico (lat. 37°). 
Sw. and Ricu., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 356, pl. 63; Nurr., i, 612; Avp., v, 
125, pl. 802; Bp., 636; Coop., 542. . 2 . 3. “Ss eee 


Subfamily ODONTOPHORINA. American Partridges. . 


Head completely feathered, and usually crested, the crest frequently assuming a 
remarkable shape. Nasal fosse not filled with feathers, the nostrils covered with 
a naked scale. Tarsi and toes naked, the latter scarcely or not fringed. 

Our partridges may be distinguished, among American Galline, by the foregoing 
characters, but not from those of the Old World; and it is highly improbable that, 
as a group, they are separable from all the forms of the latter by any decided 
peculiarities. I find that the 
principal supposed character, 
namely, a toothing of the under 
mandible, is very faintly indicated 
in some forms, and entirely want- 
ing in others. Pending final issue, 
however, it is expedient to recog- 
nize the group, so strictly limited 
geographically, if not otherwise. 
Several beautiful and important 
genera occur within our limits, but these partridges are most numerous in species 
in Central and South America. Odontophorus is the leading genus, with perhaps 
15 species; Hupsychortya and Dendrortyx are other extra-limital forms; and in*all, 
some forty-odd species are known. In habits, they agree more or less completely 
with the well known bob-white. Our species are apparently monogamous, and go 
in small flocks, called ‘‘coveys,” usually consisting of the members of one family ; 
they are terrestrial, but take to the trees on occasion; nest on the ground, laying 


Fig. 150. Foot and bill of Partridge. 


numerous white or speckled eggs; are chiefly granivorous, but also feed on buds, ~ 


soft fruits, and insects; and are non-migratory. 


184. Genus ORTYX Stephens. 

Virginia Partridge, or Quail. Bob-white. Quail; New England and 
Middle States, wherever the ruffed grouse is called “partridge.” Partridge; 
Southern States, wherever the ruffed grouse is called “pheasant.” Coronal 
feathers somewhat lengthened, and erectile, but hardly forming a true crest. 


Forehead, superciliary line and throat, white, bordered with black; crown, - 


neck all round, and upper part of breast, brownish-red, other under parts- 
tawny-whitish, all with more or fewer doubly crescentic black bars; sides 
broadly streaked with brownish-red ; upper parts variegated with chestnut, 
black, gray and tawny, the latter edging the inner quills. “9 known by 


TETRAONIDZ, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES.—GEN. 185, 186. Do, 


haying the throat buff instead of white, less black about the fore parts, and 
general colors less intense ; rather smaller than the ¢. 9-10; wing 44-5; 
tail 24-3. Eastern United States to high central plains; the characteristic 
game bird of this country. Eggs white. Wus., vi, 21, pl. 47; Nurr., i, 
647; Aup., v, 59, pl. 289; Bp., 646. . . . . . . . VIRGINIANUS. 

Var. FLORIDANUS -CotsEs, n. v. Rather smaller, the ¢ about the size of the? 
virginianus, but bill relatively larger, and jet-black; colors darker, all the black 
markings heavier. Florida (Allen) ; an approach to the Cuban form (0. cubanensis). 

Var. Texanus Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y., vi, 1853, 1; Bp., 641. Size of florida- 
nus; colors paler, the prevailing shade rather gray than brown; upper parts much 
variegated with tawny. Texas. 

Oss. Among the thousands of bob-whites yearly destroyed, albinotic or melan- 
otic, and other abnormally colored specimens, are frequently found; but the 
percentage of these cases is nothing unusual, and the sportsman must be cautioned 
against supposing that such birds have any status, in a scientific point of view, 
beyond their illustration of certain perfectly well known variations. Such speci- ° 
mens, however, are interesting and valuable, and should always be preserved. 


185. Genus OREORTYX Baird. 


Plumed Partridge. Mountain Quail of the Californians. With an 
arrowy crest of two slender keeled feathers, 3-4 inches long in the g 
when fully developed, shorter in the ¢. An 
elegant species, much larger than the bob- 
white, inhabiting the mountainous parts of 
California and Oregon. A foot long; wing 
over 5 inches; tail over 3; whole foot about 
3; Qrather less. Hinder half of body above, 
with wings and tail, rich dark olive-brown, 
the inner edges of the inner quills brownish- 
white; hinder half below purplish-chestnut, 
barred with white, black and tawny; fore 
parts above and below slaty-blue (above 
more or less glossed with olive, below finely 
marbled with black), the chin and throat Z 
purplish-chestnut, edged with black and ee cere st ened Parividee, 
bounded by a white stripe meeting its fellow under the bill; ¢ sufficiently 
similar. AvuD., v, 69, pl. 291; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 791; Bp., 642; Coop., 
2 (040 


186. Genus LOPHORTYX Bonaparte. 


*,* With an elegant crest, recurved helmet-wise, of several (6-10) keeled, 
clubbed, glossy black imbricated feathers, more than an inch long when fully 
developed; in the 9, smaller, of fewer feathers. Bulk of the bob-white, but 
longer; 10-114; wing 4 or more; tail 3 or more. ¢ with the chin and throat 
jet-black, sharply bordered with white; a white line across the vertex and along 
the sides of the crown, bordered behind by black; Q without these head-markings. 


238 TETRAONIDE, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES.—GEN. 187. 


Californian Partridge. Valley Quail of the Californians. g with a 
small white line from bill to eye; forehead whitish with black lines; occiput 
smoky-brown; nuchal and cervical feathers with very dark edging and shaft 
lines, and fine whitish speckling; general color of upper parts ashy with 
strong olive-brown gloss, the edging of the inner quills brownish-orange ; 
fore breast slaty-blue; under parts tawny deepening centrally into rich 
golden-brown or orange-chestnut, all the feathers sharply edged with jet- 
black ; sides like the back, with sharp white stripes; vent, flanks and cris- 
sum tawny, with dark stripes. Besides lacking the definite head-markings, 
the ¢ wants the rich sienna color of the under parts, which are whitish or 
tawny, with black semicircles as in the ¢ ; the breast is olive-gray. Lower 
portions of California and Oregon, East nearly to the Colorado River; 
abundant. Eggs of this and the next species speckled. Avup., v, 67, 
pl. 290; Nurrv., i, 2d ed. 789; Bp., 644; Coor., 549. . CALIFORNICUS. 

Gambel’s Partridge. Arizona Quail. @ without white loral line; fore- 
head black with whitish lines ; occiput chest- 
nut; nuchal and cervical feathers with dark 
shaft lines, but few dark edgings or none, 
and no white. speckling; general color of 
upper parts clear ash, the edging of the 
inner quills white ; fore breast like the back ; 
under parts whitish, middle of belly with a 
large jet-black patch; sides rich purplish- 
chestnut with sharp white stripes; vent, 
flanks and crissum white with dusky streaks. 
Besides lacking the definite head-markings, 
the ¢ wants the black abdominal area, where 
the feathers are whitish with dark lengthwise 
touches. New Mexico and Arizona, both in 
mountains and valleys, very abundant; E. 
to Pecos and San Elizario, Texas, ,beyond 

Fig. 152. Gambel’s Partridge. which replaced by the Massena partridge ; 
W. to Colorado R. and slightly beyond; N. to 35° and probably a little 
further; S. into Mexico. Cass., Ill. 45, pl. 9; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 
1866, 59, and Ibis, 1866, 46; Bp.; 645; Coor., 553.. . . . ‘GAMBEwGEE 


187. Genus CALLIPEPLA Wagler. 


Scaled Partridge. Blue Quail. With a short, full, soft crest. Grayish- 
blue, paler below, in places with a brownish shade, the sides with white 
stripes, nearly the whole plumage marked with semicircular black edging of 
the feathers, producing a scaled appearance ; inner edges of inner quills, and 
end of crest, whitish; crissum rusty with dark streaks. 9 not particularly 
different. 9-10; wing 5; tail4. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and south- 
ward.  Cass., Ill. 129, pl. 19; Bp., 646; Coor., 556. .  « SQUAMATA. 


a : 


Ste or ee 


GRALLATORES, WADING BIRDS.—GEN. 188. ) 239 


188. Genus CYRTONYX Gould. 


Massena Partridge. $ with the head singularly striped with black and 
white; the upper parts variegated with black, white and tawny, and with 
paired black spots on the wings; below 
velyety black, purplish-chestnut along 
the middle line, and with numerous 
sharp circular white spots; 9-10 long; 
wing 6; tail 23; tarsus 14. @ smaller, 
and entirely different in color, but 
easily recognized by the peculiar generic 
characters ; tail very short, soft, almost 
hidden by its coverts; wing coverts 
and inner quills highly developed; toes 
short; claws very large; head with a 
short, full, soft, occipital crest. Texas, FG. 153. Massena Partridge, 

New Mexico, Arizona and southward. N. at least to 35°. Cass., Ill. 21, 
ueetnetts COOP, 990. | . . .- . - - « « + « MASSENA. 


Ozs. The Welcome Partridge, Lupsychortyx cristatus (Ortyx neoxenus AUD., Vv, 


71, pl. 292) and several other species, have been admitted to our fauna upon 


unsatisfactory evidence, or erroneous reports. Some of them, however, may yet be 
found over our Mexican border. 


Order GRALLATORES. Wading Birds, 


A character of nearly unexceptional applicability is nakedness of the leg above 
the heel, or tibio-tarsal joint (suffrago). The bare space is generally of consider- 
able length, but in several genera the ends of the feathers reach to the joint, while 
in others the tibize are completely feathered. The legs are usually long; as a rule 
the neck is lengthened pari passu; and the length of the bill is also in some 
measure correspondent. In its current acceptation, the order does not appear suscep- 
tible of further, or of any very exact, definition. Besides its several leading and 
characteristic groups, it contains a number of singular outlying forms, mostly 
represented each by a single genus, the location of which has not been satisfactorily 
determined. Present indications are, however, that all the grallatorial birds will 
fall in one or another of three groups, to be conventionally designated as sub- 
orders. All of these occur in this country; their nature may be approximately 
indicated, as follows : — 

I. LIMICOLZA. Shore-birds. Commonly known as the great “ plover-snipe 
group,” from the circumstance that the pluvialine and scolopacine birds form the 
bulk of the division. - The species average of small size, with rounded or depressed 
(never extremely compressed) body, and live in open places on the ground, usually 
by the water’s edge. With rare exceptions, the head is completely feathered ; the 
general pterylosis is of a nearly uniform pattern. The osteological characters are 
shared to some extent by certain swimming birds, as gulls and auks; the palate is 
schizognathous ; the carotids are double; the syringeal muscles, not more than one 
pair. The physiological nature is precocial; the eggs, averaging four, as a rule 
are laid on the ground in a rude nest or bare depression; the young hatch clothed 


240 GRALLATORES, WADING BIRDS. 


and able to run about. The food is insects, worms, and other small or soft animals, 
either picked up from the surface, or probed for in soft sand or mud, or forced to 
rise by stamping with the feet on the ground; from this latter circumstance, the 
birds have been named Calcatores (stampers). With a few exceptions, the wing is 
long, thin, flat and pointed, with narrow stiff primaries, rapidly graduated from 1st 
to 10th; secondaries in turn rapidly lengthening from without inward, the posterior 
border of the wing thus showing two salient points separated by a deep emargina- 
tion. The tail, never long, is commonly quite short, and has from 12 (the usual 
number) up to 20 or even 26 feathers (in a remarkable group of snipe). The legs 
are commonly lengthened, sometimes extremely so, rarely quite short, and are 
usually slender; they are indifferently scutellate or reticulate, or both. The 
feathers rarely reach the suffrago. ‘The toes are short (as compared with the case 
of herons and rails, of the next group), the anterior usually semipalmate, fre- 
quently cleft to the base, rarely palmate or lobate; the hinder is always short and 
elevated, or absent. The bill varies much in length and contour, but is almost 
always slender, contracted from the frontal region of the skull, and as long as, or 
much longer than, the head, representing the ‘‘ pressirostral” and ‘ longirostral ” 
types of Cuvier. Furthermore, it is generally in large part, if not entirely, covered 
with softish skin, often membranous and sensitive to the very tip, and only rarely 
hard throughout. The nostril is generally a slit in the membranous part, .and 
probably never feathered. 


Most of the families of this division are well represented in this country, and 
will be found fully characterized beyond. The extra-limital ones are : — Otidide, 
bustards, an important group of Europe, Asia and Africa, containing some 20 
species; it has a certain gallinaceous bent, and stands, like the Twrnicide, near the 
boundary line of the two orders. The remarkable genus Chionis, of two South 
American species, forms the family Chionide (or sheath-bills, so called because the 
bill is invested by a horny sheath forming a false cere), with some gallinaceous rela- 
tionships, and appears to belong here, near the oyster-catchers. The Thinocoride, 
or ‘ lark-partridges,” as they are called, consisting of the South American genera 
Thinocorus and Attagis, of few species, appear to be plover-like birds, near the 
elareoline group of the latter. The singular African Dromas ardeola, representing 
a family Dromadide, of uncertain position, is sometimes placed near the avocets, 
sometimes with the herons, and is occasionally removed to another order. 


II. HERODIONES. Herons and their allies. The species average of large 
size, some of them standing amongst the tallest of birds (excepting ostriches). 
The body is usually compressed ; the legs, neck and bill are commonly extremely 
long. The general pterylosis is peculiar, in the presence, nearly throughout the 
group, of the remarkable powder down tracts, and in some other respects. <A part, 
if not the whole of the head, is naked, as much of the neck also frequently is. 
The toes are long and slender; the hallux is long, and either not obviously elevated, 
or else perfectly insistent. A foot of insessorial character results, and the species 
frequently perch on trees, where the nest is usually placed. The physiological nature 
is altricial ; the young hatch naked, unable to stand, and are fed in the nest. The 
food is fish, reptiles, mollusks and other animal matters, generally procured by 
spearing with a quick thrust of the sharp bill, given as the birds stand in wait, or 
stalk stealthily along; hence they are sometimes called Gradatores (stalkers). The 
bill represents the cultrirostral pattern; it isas arule of lengthened, wedged shape, 
hard and acute at the end, if not hard throughout, with sharp cutting edges, and it 


= ——_— ———_—=- —- ~~” 


GRALLATORES, WADING BIRDS. 241 


enlarges regularly to the forehead, where the skull contracts gradually in sloping 
down to meet it. The palate is desmognathous. The wings normally show a 
striking difference from those of Limicole, being long, broad and ample, much 
as in the next group. 


The herons (Ardeide, beyond), are typical of this group. The only extra-limital 
family is that of the Ciconiide, or storks; these are birds standing very near the 
ibises and spoonbills (beyond), and distinguished from the herons, among other 
circumstances, by the absence of powder-down tracts. Excepting the jabiru of 
tropical America, Mycteria americana, the storks are all Old World, and chiefly 
inhabit warm countries; there are only 8-10 species, representing nearly as many 
genera of authors; among these, Anastomus and Hiator are remarkable for a wide 
interval between the cutting edges of the bill, which only come into apposition at 
base and tip. The singular African Scopus wmbretta, type of a subfamily at least, 
is often placed among the herons, but its pterylosis is that of the storks. The 
cranes, which have been associated with Herodiones on account of their stature and 
other superficial resemblances, unquestionably belong to the next division, where 
also several doubtful forms appear to fall. 

Ill. ALECTORIDES. Cranes, Rails and their allies. A portion of these birds, 
representing the crane type, have a general resemblance to the foregoing, but are 
readily distinguished by the technical characters given beyond under the head of 
Gruide, and in essential respects accord with the rest, representing the rail type. 
The latter are birds of medium and small size, with compressed body, and the head 
feathered. The neck and legs are not particularly lengthened, but as a rule the 
toes are remarkably Jong, enabling the birds to run lightly over the soft oozy ground 
and floating vegetation of the reedy swamps and marshes they inhabit. This 
length of the toes has given a name, Macrodactyli, to the group ; their shy retiring 
habit of skulking among the rushes has caused them to be sometimes called 
Latitores (skulkers). Their nature is precocial ; the eggs are numerous, usually laid 


_ on the ground, in arude nest. The nourishment is essentially the same as that of 


the Limicole, but it is simply picked up from the surface, not felt for in the mud, 
nor stamped out of the ground. The hallux is usually lengthened, and but little 
elevated ; the feet are conspicuously lobate in some forms. ‘The wings are usually 
short, rounded and concave ; the tail is very short, few-feathered, often held cocked 
up, and wagged in unison with a bobbing motion of the head that occurs with each 
step taken. The Alectorides are schizognathous. 


This country affords typical representatives of the two leading forms, that of the 
cranes, and of the rails, coots and gallinules, as given beyond ; there are, however, 
a number of remarkable outliers, that may be briefly mentioned, as follows ;— 
The kagu, Rhinochetus jubatus of New Caledonia, and the carle, Eurypyga helias 
of Guiana, are each the type and single representative of a family which seems near 
the cranes in principal osteological characters (Hualey), although pterylographi- 
cally they are more like herons, both possessing powder-down tracts (Bartlett) ; 
and Eurypyga, in particular, resembles herons in other respects. More closely 
allied to the cranes are the trumpeters, Psophiide, of one genus and few species of 
South America, with the cariamas, Cariamide, of the same country, represented 
only by the Cariama cristata and the Chunga burmeisterii. ‘The horned screamers, 
Palamedeide, of South America, consisting of three species, Palamedea cornuta, 
Chauna chavaria and C. derbiana, seem to be nearer the rails, and also closely 
approach the water birds; one of them is by some considered the nearest: living 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 31 


242 CHARADRIIDA, PLOVER. 


ally of the mesozoic Archwopteryz. Some gigantic extinct birds belong in the 
neighborhood of the rails and coots. Decidedly rail-like and better known birds 
are the jacanas, Purride, noted for the length of the toes, and especially of the 
claws; they have a sharp spur on the wing. There are less than 12 species, usually 
referred to several genera, of various parts of the world. Finally, the sun-birds, 
Heliornithide, are a small but remarkable family of one or two genera and about 
four species of tropical America, Africa, and southern Asia. They have been 
classed, on account of their lobate feet and a certain general resemblance, with the 
grebes ; but the feet are like those of coots, and their whole structure shows that they 
belong with the ralliform birds. This completes an enumeration of the Alectorides. 


Suborder LIMICOLA’. Shore Birds. (See p. 239.) 


Family CHARADRIIDA. Plover. 


This is a large and important family of nearly a hundred species, of all parts of 
the world. Its limits are not settled, there being a few forms sometimes referred 
here, sometimes made the types of distinct families. I exclude from it the genera 
Thinocorus, Attagis, and Chionis, noted on a preceding page. The glareoles 
(Glareoline if not Glareolide) are a remarkable Old World form, like long-legged 
swallows, with a cuckoo’s bill; the tail is forked ; there are four toes; the wings are 
extremely long and pointed ; the tarsi are scutellate; the middle claw denticulate. 
The coursers, Cursoriine, are another Old World type, near the bustards, of one 
or two genera and less than ten species. In both of these the gape of the mouth is 
longer than in the true plovers; the hind toe, as usual for this family, is absent in 
the coursers. The thick-knees, Gdicnemine, are truly plover-like birds, with one 
exception belonging to the Old World, comprising about eight species of the genera 
CEdicnemus and Esacus. All the remaining pluvialine birds appear to fall in the 


Subfamily CHARADRIINA. True Plover. 


Toes generally three, the hinder absent (excepting, among our forms, gen. 189, 
193) ; tarsus reticulate, longer than the middle toe; toes with a basal web; tibiz 
naked below. Bill of moderate length, much shorter or not longer than the head, 
shaped somewhat like that of a pigeon, with a convex horny terminal portion, con- 
tracted behind this; the nasal fossee rather short and wide, filled with soft skin in 
which the nostrils open as a slit, not basal, and perforate. Gape very short, reaching 
little beyond base of culmen. Wings long and pointed, reaching, when folded, to or 
beyond the end of the tail, and sometimes spurred; crissal feathers long and full; 
tail short, generally nearly even and of 12 feathers; body plump; neck short and 
thick ; head large, globose, sloping rapidly to the small base of the bill, usually 
fully feathered. Size moderate or small. 

Our species (excepting Aphriza, if really belonging here) are very closely related, 
and will be readily recognized by the foregoing characters. There are in all perhaps 
sixty species. The most singular of them is the Anarhynchus frontalis, in which 
the bill is bent sideways. Thinornis zelandice of New Zealand, Phegornis mitchellit 
and Oreophilus totanirostris of Chili, are peculiar forms. Species of Chettusia, 
Lobivanellus, and Hoplopterus have fleshy wattles, or a tubercle, often developed into 
a spine, on the wing, or both; some of these, and others, are crested. These are 


{NoTE. The genus Grus, inadvertently numbered 223 in the Key, will be found next after genus 238.] 


CHARADRIUDZ, PLOVER.—GEN. 189, 190. 243 


all near Vanellus proper, and a part of them are 4-toed. Our species are found 
along the seashore, by the water’s edge in other open places, and in dry plains and 
fields. They all perform extensive migrations, appearing with great regularity in 
the spring and fall, and most of them breed far northward. They are all more or 
less gregarious except when breeding. They run and fly with great rapidity ; the 
voice is a mellow whistle; the food is chiefly of an animal nature. The eggs are 
commonly four in number, speckled, very large at one end and pointed at the other, 
placed with the small ends together in a slight nest or mere depression in the ground. 
The sexes are generally similar, but the changes with age and season are great. 

Oss. The European lapwing, Vanellus cristatus, is reported by Mr. Dall from 
Alaska, where, however, specimens were not taken. (Alaska and its Resources, p.586.) 


189. Genus SQUATAROLA Cuvier. 


Black-bellied Plover. Beetle-headed Plover. Whistling Field Plover. 
Bull-head. Ox-eye. A small hind toe, hardly 4 long; plumage speckled. 
Adult in breeding season (rarely seen in the U. S.): face and entire under 
parts black, upper parts variegated 
with black, and white or ashy; tail 
‘barred with black and white; quills 
dusky, with large white patches. Adult = 
at other times, and young: below white, “ 
more or less shaded with gray, the 
throat and breast speckled with dusky ; 
above blackish, speckled with white or 
yellowish; the rump white with dark 
bars; legs dull bluish. Old birds 
changing show every grade, from a few 
isolated black feathers on the under parts, to numerous large black patches. 
11-12; wing 7 or more; tail 3; bill 1-14; tarsus 2; middle toe and claw 14. 
A bird commonly diffused over most parts of the world. Wus., vil, 41, pl. 
57,f.4; Aup., v, 199, pl. 315; Nurr., ii, 26 ; Cass. in Bp., 697. HELVETICA. 


eC 
Fic. 154. Black-bellied Plover. 


190. Genus CHARADRIUS Linneus. 


Golden Plover. rost-bird. Bull- 
head. No hind toe; plumage speckled 
above, and in the breeding season black 
below, as in the last species, but much 
of the speckling bright yellow, and the 
rump and upper tail coverts like the 
back ; forehead, and a broad line over 
the eye to the nape, white ; tail feathers 
grayish-brown, with imperfect white or 
= ashy bars; axillars gray or ashy. At 
winter plumage. other times the under parts nearly as 
in the last species. 10-11; wing7 or less; tail under 3; bill 1 or less; 
tarsus 18; middle toe and claw 14. N. Am., abundant in the U. S. in 


Fig. 155. Golden Plover; 


244 CHARADRUDE, PLOVER.—GEN. 191, 192. 


great flocks in the fall, a well-known and highly-rated game bird. It is 
very near the European species, but seems distinct; the axillars are gray, 
not white. It appears to be a variety of the Asiatic; rather larger and 
with shorter toes. Wuus., vil, 71, pl. 59, f. 5; Nurv., ii, 16; Aub, ¥, 
203, pl. 316; Cass. in Bp., 690. . . . . . FULVUS Var. vERGaNroums 


191-2. Genus AIGIALITIS Boie. 

*,* Plumage not speckled; below, white; head and neck with black bands in 

the breeding season. ~ 

* Tarsus about half as long again as the middle toe. (#gialitis.) 
Kildeer Plover. Rump and upper tail coverts tawny or orange-brown, 
most of the tail feathers white at base and tip, suffused with orange-brown 
in a part of their length, and with 
1-3 black bars ; secondaries mostly 
white, and primaries with a white 
' space; forehead white ; a black bar 
across the crown, and two broad 
black bands on the neck and breast ; 
bill black; feet pale grayish-blue. 
9-10; wing 6 or more; tail 33, 
much rounded; tarsus about 14. 
North America, very abundant, 
especially on the Plains; breeds 
anywhere, but rarely in New Eng- 


Fig. 158. Kildeer Plover. land; name derived from its pecu- 
liar notes. WiIts., vii, 73, pl. 59; Nuort., ii, 22; Aup., v¥, 207;mleomae 
Cass. invBpz, 6920. 2iiee- ke . . VOCIFERUS. 


Wilson’s Plover. Pale ashy-brown, merging into fulvous on the nape; a 
black bar on the crown, and a broad black pectoral belt, grayish-brown in 
the @ and young; no bright ring round eye; legs flesh-colored; bill black, 
extremely large and stout, nearly as long as the head; 7-8; wing 43-5; 
tail 2, nearly square. Seacoast of S. Atlantic and Gulf States, common ; 
N. to the middle districts, and probably to New England; also on the Pacific 
side to California? Wuis., ix, 77, pl. 73, f.5; Nuorr., 11, 21g) eee 
214, pl. 319; Cass. in Bp., 693. .. . .« . . « «0)0) sr 

Semipalmated Plover. Ring Plover. Ringneck. Dark ashy-brown with 
an olivaceous shade; very broad coronal and pectoral black bars, in the 
adult of both sexes, that on the breast grayish-brown in the young, but still 
evident; edges of eyelids bright orange; bill moderately short and stout, 
orange or yellow, black-tipped; legs yellowish; toes conspicuously semi- 
palmate. About 7; tail about $ as long as the wings, rounded. North 
America, abundant. Breeds northward. WiIxzs., vii, 65, pl. 59, f. 3; Nurt., 
ii, 24; Aup., v, 218, pl. 320; Cass. in Bp., 674. . . . SEMIPALMATUS. 

Piping Plover. Ringneck. Very pale: ashy-brown; the black bands 
narrow, often imperfect; bill colored as in the last, but very short and 


_— 


’ 


4 


el 


CHARADRIIDH, PLOVER.—GEN. 192, 193. 


245 


stumpy; edges of eyelids colored; no evident web between inner and middle 
toes, and only a slight one between middle and outer; size of the last, or 
rather less. Eastern and Middle North America; abundant on the Atlantic 
coast, breeding northward. Wits., v, 30, pl. 37, f. 3; Nurr., ii, 18; 


Aup., v, 223, pl. 321; Cass. in Bp., 695. 


MELODUS. 


Snowy Plover. With a general eee Ene to the ee this species is 


rather darker (not so dark as in semzpalmatus), and the hind 
with fulvous, as in wilsonius; it may be at once recognized 


head is tinged 
by its entirely 


black bill, slender, about'3 long; legs dark; several lateral tail feathers 
entirely white; 64-7 long; wing 4-44; tail 2 or less. California coast, 
where I found it abundant in winter: Ibis, 1866, 274. It belongs to a 
different sub-group from the foregoing, and appears to be identical with the 


common Kentish plover of Europe, A. cantiana; but I 
opportunity of a direct comparison. Cass. in Bp., 696. 


have had no 
CANTIANA. 


** Tarsus about twice as long as the middle toe. (Podasocys.) 


Mountain Plover. Bill black, slender, an inch long; middle toe and claw 


the same; tarsus 1%; tibize bare over $; about 9; wing 6; 


tail 3, nearly 


square. Above brown, all the feathers skirted with rusty, which also shades 


the breast: other under parts, forehead, and short line over 


eye, white; a 


coronal (and pectoral?) black band in mature plumage; quills and tail 
blackish, former with white shafts, latter tipped with whitish. Middle 
Kansas to the Pacific, common on dry plains and even in deserts; inde- 


pendent of water; feeds on insects, especially grasshoppers. 


I found it in 


New Mexico in June, and abundantly in California in November. The 
eggs, hitherto undescribed, measure 1.40 to 1.50 in the greater axis, by 1.10 


in the transverse; color an olive drab with a slight brown 
marked, especially toward the larger end, with small sharp 


fine dotting of blackish, dark brown and neutral tint. (Descri 


shade, thickly 
speckling and 
ibed from two 


specimens in the Smithsonian collection, taken by Haypgrn, July, 1859, in 
Nebraska). Charadrius montanus Avup,, v, 213, pl. 318 ; gialitis montanus 
Cass. in Bp., 693; Podasocys montanus Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 
Ses aaaoT, pl 39... . . . CSC. )SCASIATICUS Var. MONTANUS. 


193. Genus APHRIZA Audubon. 


Surf Bird. Dark ashy-brown, streaked with white on the head and neck, 
and in summer with chestnut and black on the back; upper tail coverts 
white; under parts white, often ashy-shaded, and variously marked with 
blackish ; tail black and white; bases and shafts of primaries, most of the 
secondaries, and tips of greater coverts, white; bill black, flesh-colored at 


base below; legs dusky-greenish; 9-10; wing about 7; 


tail 3 or less; 


bill 1; tarsus 14, reticulate; hind toe present; front toes cleft to the base. 
Varies greatly in plumage with age and season. A remarkable bird, appar- 
ently a plover, connecting this family with the next, and also related to 
the sandpipers. Extensively dispersed on the coasts and islands of the Pacific. 


Cass. in Bp., 698; Aphriza townsendii Aup., v, 228, pl. 322. 


VIRGATA. 


246 HEMATOPODID®H, OYSTER-CATCHERS, TURNSTONES. —GEN. 194, 195. 


Family HASMATOPODIDA. Oyster-catchers. Turnstones. 


A small family of two genera and six or eight species, with the bill hard, 
and either acute or truncate, the nasal fosse short, broad and shallow; the 
legs short, stout, brightly-colored. The two following genera differ much. 
Hematopus is 3-toed, with much basal webbing, the tarsi reticulate; the 
bill longer than the tarsus, stout, straight, constricted toward the base, 
compressed and truncate at the end, somewhat like a woodpecker’s; it is an 
efficient instrument for prying open the shells of bivalve mollusks. Strepsilas 
is 4-toed, with no obvious basal webbing; the tarsi scutellate in front, the 
bill sharp-pointed, not longer than the tarsus; its scientific and vernacular 
names are both derived from its curious habit‘of turning over pebbles along 
the beach in search of food. There is but one species, cosmopolitan. 


194. Genus HA MATOPUS Linneus. 

Oyster-catcher. Head and neck blackish tinged with brown or ashy ; 
back ashy-brown; below from the breast, eyelid, rump, tips of greater 
wing coverts, most sec- 
ondaries, and basal part 
of tail feathers, white ; 
rest of tail, and quills, 
blackish; bill and edges 
of eyelids red or orange ; 
legs flesh color; 17-18; 
wing 10; tail 44; bill 3. 


Fig. 157. Bill of Oyster-catcher. Atlantic coast ; California 
(Cooper). Writs., viii, 15, pl. 64; Nurr., ii, 15; Avup., v, 236, pl. 324; 
Cassy Int Bp. 699. <a . » « « PAs 


Black Oyster-catcher. Nearly uniform blackish or sooty brown; the head 
and neck frequently with an ashy shade. Size of the foregoing. Pacific 
coast. Cass. in Bp., 700. H. townsendii Aup., v, 243, pl. 325. NIGER. 

Oss. HH. bachmani Aup., v, 245, pl. 326; H. ater Cass. in Bp., 700 (if really 
distinct from the last, which is doubtful), is a South American species improperly 
attributed to our fauna. 


195. Genus STREPSILAS Linneus. 

Turnstone. Brant Bird. Calico-back. Adult in summer pied above 
with black, white, brown and chestnut-red, the latter color wanting in 
winter, and in young birds; below, from the 
breast (which is more or less completely black), 
throat, most of the secondaries, bases and 
shafts of primaries, and bases and tips of tail 
feathers, white; bill black; feet orange; 8-9; 
wing 53-6 ; tail24; bill $, almost recurved, with 
ascending gonys; tarsus 1; tibie bare butalittle Fic. 158. Bill of Turnstone. 
way. Both coasts, abundant during the migrations. Wus., vii, 32, pl. 57, f. 
1; Norr., ii, 30; Aup., v, 231, pl. 323; Cass. in Bp.. 701. INTERPRES. 


RECURVIROSTRIDZ, AVOCETS, STILTS. —GEN. 196, 197. 


Var. MELANOCEPHALUS. Black-headed Turnstone. Without any of the ches 
coloration of the last, the parts that are pied in interpres being blackish; the white 
parts, however, as before. Apparently a permanent melanism. Pacific Coast. 
Cass. in Bp., 702. 


e Family RECURVIROSTRIDA. Avocets. Stilts. 


Another small family, characterized by the extreme length of the slender legs, 
and the extreme slenderness of the long acute bill, which is either straight or 
curved upward. Recwrvirostra is 4-toed, and full-webbed; the bill is decidedly 
recuryed, flattened, and tapers to a needle-like point; the body is depressed; the 
plumage underneath is thickened as in water birds. The species swim well. 
Himantopus is 3-toed, semipalmate, the bill nearly straight, and not flattened; in 
relative length of leg it is probably not surpassed by any bird whatsoever. These 
two genera, each of three or four species of various parts of the world, with 
the Cladorhynchus pectoralis of Australia, 
compose the family. 


196. Gen. RECURVIROSTRA Linnezus. 


Avocet. Blue-stocking. White; back 
and wings with much black ; head and neck 
cinnamon-brown in the adult, ashy in the 
young (2. occidentalis Cass., Ill. 232, pl. 

G. 159. Bill and foot of Avocet. 40); bill black; legs blue; eyes red; 
16-18 ; wing 7-8; tail3$; tarsus3$. Temperate N. Am. Wrts., vii, 126, pl. 
63,f. 2; Nurr., ii, 74; AuD., vi, 24, pl. 353 ; Cass. in Bp., 703. AMERICANA. 


197. Genus HIMANTOPUS Brisson. 


Stilt. Longshanks. Lawyer. Glossy black; _ 
forehead, sides of head and neck, rump and 
under parts, white; tail white or ashy; bill 
black; legs carmine. Young with back and 
wings brown. 13-15; wing 8-9; tail 3; 
tarsus 4. United States. Wus., vii, 48, pl. 
Sete, AUD., Vi, 31, pl. 354; Nutt., ii, 8; 
eee. 704. . . . «. #£NIGRICOLLIS. 


Fam. PHALAROPODID. Phalaropes. 


This is likewise a small family ; the three species 
comprising it resemble sandpipers, but are imme- ; 
diately distinguished by the lobate feet ; the toes are furnished with plain or scalloped 
membranes, like those of coots and grebes, but not so broad. The body is depressed, 
and the under plumage thick and duck-like to resist water, on which the birds swim with 
perfect ease and grace. The wings and tail are like those of ordinary sandpipers ; the 
tarsi are much compressed ; there is basal webbing of the toes besides the marginal 
membrane ; the bill, and some other details of form, differ in each of the three species. 
These birds inhabit the northern portions of both hemispheres, two of them at 
least breeding only in boreal regions, but they all wander far southward in winter. 


Fic. 160. Stilt. 


. 
Ae eee ee ee ee PE eee ee eee eT eee 


248 PHALAROPODIDZ, PHALAROPES.— GEN. 198, 199, 200. 


198. Genus STEGANOPUS Vieillot. 


Wilson’s Phalarope. Membranes straight-edged; bill very slender, 
subulate. Juength 9-10; wing 5; tail 2; bill, tarsus, and middle toe, each, 
over 1, black. Adult ashy; upper tail coverts and under parts white ; 
a black stripe from the eye down the side of the neck spreading into rich 
purplish-chestnut, which also vari- 
egates the back, and shades the 
throat; young lacking these last 
colors. N. Am. WHUts., ix, 72, 
pl. 73, f. 383  Nopaly ieee 
Aup., v, 299, pl. 341; Cass. in 
Bp., 705. . . « =) seer 


199. Genus LOBIPES Cuvier. 
Fic. 161. Wilson’s Phalarope (head); Northern 


Phalarope (foot). Northern Phalarope. Men- 
branes scalloped; bill very slender, subulate. Length about 7; wing 44; 
tail 2; bill, tarsus and middle toe, each, under 1, black. Adult dark 
opaque ash or grayish-black, the back variegated with tawny; upper tail 
coverts and under parts mostly white; side of the head and neck with a 
broad stripe of rich chestnut, generally meeting on the jugulum; breast 
otherwise with ashy-gray ; young lacking the chestnut. Northern N. Am., 
U.S. during the migration. Bonap., Am. Orn. iv, 82, pl. 25, f. 2; Nurrt., 
li, 239; Avup., v, 295, pl. 340; Cass. in Bp., 706. . . HYPHRBORHUS: 


200. Genus PHALAROPUS. 


Red Phalarope. Membranes scalloped ; bill comparatively stout, flattened, 
with lancet-shaped tip. Length 7-8; wing 5; tail 22; bill 1, yellowish, 
black-tipped; tarsus #, greenish. Adult with the under parts purplish- 
chestnut, of variable intensity, white in the young; above variegated with 
blackish and tawny. Northern N. Am., U. S. during the migrations. 
Wits., ix, 75, pl. 73, f.4; Nurr., ii, 236; Aup., v, 291, plo 350 p@aeee 
in Bpo., TOT, 2 8s oe OP a oe 


Family SCOLOPACID:. Snipe, etc. 


Snipe and their allies form a well-defined and perfectly natural assemblage, one 
of the two largest limicoline families, agreeing with plover in most essential 
respects, yet well distinguished from the pluvialine birds. In general, the bill is 
much elongated, frequently several times longer than the head, and in those cases 
in which it is as short as in plover, it does not show the particular, somewhat 
pigeon-like, shape described under Charadriinew, being slender and soft-skinned 
throughout. It is generally straight, but frequently curved up or down. The 
nasal grooves, always long and narrow channels, range from one-half to almost the 
whole length of the bill; similar grooves usually occupy the sides of the under 
mandible; the interramal space is correspondingly long and narrow, and nearly 
naked. This length, slenderness, grooving, and peculiar sensitiveness are the prime 


SCOLOPACID, SNIPE, ETC. 249 


characteristics of the scolopacine bill. The gape, never ample, is generally very 
short and narrow, reaching little, if any, beyond the base of the bill. The nostrils 
are short narrow slits, exposed. The head is completely feathered to the bill 
(except in one species), at the base of which the ptilosis stops abruptly, without 
forming projecting antiz. The wings commonly show the thin pointed contour 
described under Limicole, but they are occasionally short and rounded. The tail, 
always short and soft, has as a rule 12 rectrices; in one genus, however, there are 
from 12 to 26. The crura are rarely feathered to the suffrago. The tarsi are 
seutellate before and behind, and reticulate on the sides, except in the curlews, 
where they are scutellate only in front; they are probably never entirely reticulate 
(the normal state in plover). The hallux is absent in only two or three instances ; 
the anterior toes commonly show one basal web, and often two, but in many species 
they are entirely cleft. The scolopacine birds are of medium and small size, 
ranking with plover in this respect ; none attain the average stature of Herodiones. 
The general economy of these birds is similar to that of plover; a chief 
peculiarity being probably their mode of procuring food, by feeling for it, in the 
majority of cases, in the sand or mud with their delicately sensitive, probe-like bill. 
The eggs are commonly four, parti-colored, pointed at one end and broad at the 
other, placed with the small ends together in a slight nest or mere depression on 
the ground ; the young run about at birth. The sexes, with very rare exceptions, 
are alike in color or nearly so, and the Q is usually a little larger than the ¢ ; but 
the sexual distinctions are very rarely strong enough to be perfectly reliable (remark- 
able exception in gen. 218). Color distinctions with age, likewise, are rarely 
marked ; but on the contrary, seasonal plumages are, in many cases, as throughout 
the sandpipers, very strongly indicated, the nuptial dress being entirely different 
from that worn the rest of the year. Excepting a few species that frequent dry open 
places like many plover, these birds are found by the water’s edge where the ground 
is soft and oozy—in moist thickets, low rank meadows, bogs and marshes, by the 
riverside, and on the seashore. Some are solitary, but the majority are gregarious 
when not breeding, and many gather in immense flocks, especially during the 
extensive migrations that nearly all perform. The voice is a mellow pipe, a sharp 
bleat, or a harsh scream, according to the species. Few birds surpass the snipe in 
sapid quality of flesh, and many kinds rank high in the estimation of the sportsman 
and epicure. The family is cosmopolitan, but the majority inhabit the northern 
hemisphere, breeding in boreal regions. There are about ninety well-determined 
species of scolopacine birds, referable perhaps to fifteen tenable genera, although 
many more than this are often employed. Various attempts to divide the group into 
sub-families have met with little success, owing to the close intergradation of the 
several types. All the leading forms of the family, with most of the lesser genera, 
are represented in this country, and are indicated by the specific descriptions given 
beyond ; while its entire composition may be pointed out and rendered perfectly 
intelligible by a brief summary :— 
$ a. In woodcock (gen. 201-2) and true snipe (203) the ear appears below and 
not behind the eye, which is placed far back and high up; and if the brain be 
examined, it will be found curiously tilted over so that its anatomical base looks 
forward. The bill is perfectly straight and much longer than the head, deep-grooved 
to the very end, which is either knobbed, or widened just behind the tip, where 
there is a furrow in the flattened culmen. The membranous covering is abundantly 
supplied with nerves; this organ constitutes a probe of delicate sensibility, an 
efficient instrument of touch, used to feel for food below the surface of the ground. 
KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 32 


tebe: 


250 _ SCOLOPACIDH, SNIPE, ETC. 


In the dried state, the soft skin shrinks tight like parchment to the bone, and 
becomes studded with small pits. The gape of the mouth is extremely short and 
narrow ; the toes are cleft; the legs, neck and wings are comparatively short, and 
the body is rather full. There are no obvious seasonal or sexual differences in 
plumage. Not completely gregarious; no such flights of woodcock and true 
snipe occur as are usually witnessed among sandpipers and bay-snipe; they 
inhabit the bog and brake rather than the open waterside; they cannot be 
treacherously massacred by scores, like some of their relatives; they are knowing 
birds, if their brains are upset, and their successful pursuit calls into action all the 
better qualities of the true sportsman. There is but one species of Philohela; two 
or three of Scolopax, and about twenty of Gallinago. The curious circumstance 
occurs, among the latter, that the tail feathers range from 12 to 26 in different 
species ; and in those with the higher numbers, several pairs are narrow and linear— 
a character upon which the genus Spilura rests. —The singular genus Rhynchea, 
with two species, 2. capensis (Africa) and R. semicollaris (S. America), may belong 
here.— Macrorhamphus (204), containing only our species, and one other, M. semi- 
palmatus of the Old World, has the bill exactly as in Gallinago, but is distinguished 
by more pointed wings, and differently proportioned legs, with basal webbing of 
the toes. It stands exactly between the true snipe and 

b. The godwits (213), in which we find the same very long, wholly grooved, 
and extremely sensitive bill, which, however, is not dilated at the end, nor furrowed 
on the culmen, and is bent slightly upward; the gape, as before, is exceedingly con- 
stricted. The toes show a basal web. These are rather large birds, with the colors 
and general aspect of curlews, but the bill is not decurved and the tarsi are scutel- 
late behind. They frequent marshes, bays and estuaries, and are among the 
miscellaneous assortment of birds that are collectively designated “ bay-snipe.” 
There are only five or six species, of the single genus Limosa. The Terekia cinerea 
of various parts of the Old World, with the bill recurved almost as in an avocet, 
stands between the godwits and tattlers. 

c. The sandpipers (gen. 205-212) are a rather extensive group, notable for the 
variation in minor details of form, that it shows with almost every species —a cir- 
cumstance that has caused the erectign of a number of unwarranted genera. Here 
the bill retains much of the sensitiveness of a snipe’s, and the gape likewise is 
much constricted; but the bill is much shorter, averaging about equal to the head. 
One trivial circumstance affords a good clue to this group ; the tail feathers are plain 
colored, or with simple edgings, while in almost all the species of other groups these 
feathers are barred crosswise. In this group the seasonal changes of plumage are 
very great; the proportions of the legs, and webbing of the toes, are variable 
with the species, but as a rule, the toes are cleft to the base (not so in 205, 206), 
and four in number (except 212). The sandpipers belong particularly to the 
northern hemisphere, and breed in high latitudes; they perform extensive migra- 
tions, and in winter spread over most of the world. Among them are the most 
diminutive of waders. They are probably without exception gregarious, and often 
fleck the beach in vast multitudes; they live by preference in open wet places, 
rather than in fens and marshes, and feed by probing, like snipe; the voice is 
mellow and piping. They are pretty well distinguished from both the foregoing, 
though gen. 203 connects with the snipe through 204; but shade directly into the 
following group; for instance, gen. 218-19-20, if not also 217, have been called 
Tringa, and “sandpiper.” Nearly all the forms of sandpiper are described in 
detail beyond. There are in all about 20 species. The only generic forms not 


SCOLOPACID®, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 201. 251 


represented in this country are the Limicola platyrhyncha, the peculiarity of which 
is expressed in its name; and the ELurinorhynchus pygmeus, a wonderful and 
exceedingly rare species, in which the bill is expanded and flattened at the end, 
somewhat as in the spoonbill. The singular Philomachus pugnax should perhaps 
rather come here than among 

d. The tattlers, with which it is ranged, beyond. In this, the largest and most 
varied group, the bill has comparatively little of the sensitiveness of that of all the 
foregoing, and the gape is longer, extending obviously beyond the base of the 
culmen, and sometimes to nearly below the eyes. It varies much in length and 
shape, but it is wswally longer than the head, and very slender, not often grooved 
to the tip, and is either straight, or bent slightly upward. The body and its 
members are commonly more elongate than in the foregoing, the toes have a basal 
web or two, and the hinder is always present. The tail is usually barred. They are 
noisy, restless birds of the marshes and sand-flats and mud-bars of estuaries, and 
apparently do not probe for food to any extent; they gain their name from their 
harsh voice. The yellowshanks is a typical example of the group; most of the 
species cluster close about this type, and ought to go in the single genus Totanus. 
Gen. 217, 219, 220, are another slight group. The only extra-limital form is the 
Prosobonia leucoptera, of the Sandwich Islands, a curious species, apparently near 
220. There are about 18 species in all, universally distributed. Finally, 

e. The curlews (gen. 222) are distinguished by the downward curvature, extreme 
slenderness, and usually great length of the bill, with the slight scutellation of the 
tarsus. In size and general appearance they are near the godwits; they inhabit 
all parts of the world. They all belong to the genus Numenius, which has about a 
dozen species — excepting the [bidorhyncha struthersii of Asia, which is a three-toed 
curlew, not showing the coloration characteristic of the rest. 


201. Genus PHILOHELA Gray. 


American Woodcock. Bogsucker. First three primaries attenuate and 
faleate; wings short; when closed, the quills hidden by the coverts and 


Fie. 162. Woodcock; with attenuate primaries. 


tertiaries; tibize feathered to the joint; tarsi shorter than middle toe, 
seutellate before and behind ; toes slender, free to the base ; bill much longer 
than the head, stout and deep at base, grooved nearly its whole length, the tip 
knobbed ; gape very short and narrow; ear under the eye, which is set in the 
back upper corner of the head; colors above variegated and harmoniously 
blended black, brown, gray and russet; below pale warm brown of variable 


252 SCOLOPACIDE, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 202, 203, 204. 


shade; g 10-11; ¢ 11-12; extent 16-18; wing 44-5; bill 23-3; tarsus 
14; middle toe and claw 13; weight 5-9 oz. Bogs, swamps, wet woodland 
and fields, Eastern U. S. and Canada. Wiuts., vi, 40, pl. 48, f. 2; Nurr., 
ii; 194; Avup., vi, 15, pl. 352; Cass. in Bp., 709. . . . = seine 


202. Genus SCOLOPAX Linnzus. 


European Woodcock. First primary alone attenuate ; wings more pointed 
than in the last; one-third larger; weight 12-15 oz. This bird has not 
hitherto been formally introduced to our fauna in any systematic treatise ; 
but there are several authentic instances of its capture in this country, and 
it is unquestionably entitled to a place here, as a straggler from Europe. 
See Lewis, American Sportsman, ed. of 1868, p. 169, footnote (New 
Jersey) ; Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. 1866, 292 (Rhode Island and New Jersey) ; 
Barrp, Am. Journ. Sci. xli, 1866, 25 (Newfoundland). Sportsmen who get 
a bird of this sort, will do well to report the fact at once. Of all the snipe- 
like birds of this country, called “Scolopax,” the prs esent is the only one to 
which the name is strictly applic: able. =. 1 5 ew os ee 


203. Genus GALLINAGO Leach, 


American Snipe. Wilson’s Snipe. Bill much longer than the head, 
perfectly straight, soft to the end, where it is somewhat widened and grooved 
on top; gape narrow, not reaching beyond base of culmen; ear under eye ; 
tibiz feathered not quite to the joint; tarsus a little shorter than middle toe 
and claw; toes perfectly free. Crown black, with a pale middle stripe ; 
back varied with black, bright bay and tawny, 
- the latter forming two lengthwise stripes on the 
scapulars; neck and breast speckled with brown 
and dusky; lining of wings barred with black and 
white; tail usually of 16 feathers, barred with 
black, white and chestnut; sides waved with 
dusky ; belly dull white; quills blackish, the outer 
white-edged. Length 9-11; wings 44-54; bill 
= about 2$; whole naked portion of leg and foot 
iz about 3. This is the genuine snipe, of all the 
birds loosely so called; its name of “English” 

Fig. 163. American Snipe. snipe is a misnomer, as it is indigenous to this 
country, and distinct from any European species, though closely resembling 
one of them. Open wet places of North America, at large; migratory. 
Wits., vi, 18; pl. 47, f. 2; Nurr., ti, 185; Aup., v, 339, pl. S50; sige 
in Bp., 700. Scolopax drummondii and S. douglasii Sw., F. B.-A., ii, 
A401; S. leucurus Ip,, cbid. 501. 92 2.0%.) «a 


204, Genus MACRORHAMPHUS Leach. 


fted-breasted Snipe. Gray Snipe. Brown-back. Dowitcher. A very 
snipe-like bird, with the bill exactly as in Gallinago, but readily distinguished 


SCOLOPACIDZ, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 204, 205. 258 


generically: legs long; tibie bare upwards of ? of an inch; tarsus longer 
than middle toe and claw; outer and middle ‘toes connected by an evident 
membrane; tail of 12 feathers. Tail and its coverts, at all seasons, conspic- 
uously barred with black and white (or tawny) ; lining of wings, and axillars, 
the same; quills dusky, shaft of first primary, and tips of secondaries except 
the long inner ones, white; bill and feet greenish-black. In summer, 
brownish-black above, variegated with bay ; below, brownish-red, variegated 
with dusky; a tawny superciliary stripe, and a dark one from bill to eye. 


Fig. 164. Red-breasted Snipe; with end of bill, from above. 


In winter, plain gray above, and on the breast, with few or no traces of 
black and bay, the belly, line over eye, and under eyelid, white. 10-11; 
wing 5-53; tail 23; bill about 2}; tarsus 13; middle toe and claw 14. 
A variety of this bird is almost a foot long, the bill upward of 3 inches 
(M1. scolopaceus Lawr., Ann. Lyc. 1852, 4, pl. 1; Cass. in Bp., 712). 
North America, at large; abundant, migratory; it generally flies in large 
compact flocks, like the sandpipers and shore-birds generally, rather than 
singly or in wisps like the true snipe; and prefers the shores of bays and 
estuaries, instead of wet meadows. Wits., vii, 45, pl. 58, f. 1; Nurr., ii, 
See wt, 10, pl. 591; Cass.in Bp., 712. . . . . . GRISEUS. 


205. Genus MICROPALAMA Baird. 


Stilt Sandpiper. Bill much as in the last genus, but shorter, less 
evidently widened at the end and not so distinctly furrowed on top, some- 
times perceptibly curved; legs very long; tibiz bare an inch; tarsus as long 
as the bill, both 14-13; feet semipalmate, the front toes being connected by 
two evident webs; middle toe 1. Length 8-9; wing 5; tail 24; plumage 
resembling that of the last species, its changes the same. Adult in summer: 
above blackish, each feather edged and tipped with white and tawny or bay, 
which on the scapulars becomes scalloped; auriculars chestnut; a dusky 
line from bill to eye, and a light reddish superciliary one; upper tail coverts 
white with dusky bars; primaries dusky with blackish tips; tail feathers 12, 
ashy-gray, their edge and a central field white; under parts mixed reddish, 
black and whitish, in streaks on the jugulum, elsewhere in bars; bill and 
feet greenish-black. Young, and adult in winter: ashy-gray above, with or 
without traces of black and bay, the feathers usually with white edging ; line 
over the eye and under parts white, the jugulum and sides suffused with the 
color of the back, and streaked with dusky; legs usually pale. _N. Am., 


254 SCOLOPACID®, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 206, 207-211. 


generally dispersed, but apparently not very common anywhere ; West Indies 
in winter; U. S. during the migrations; breeds in high latitudes. Avp., — 
v, 271, pl. 334; Nurr., ii, 188, 140, 141; Sw., F. B.-A. ii, 379, 380, pl. 
66; Cass. in Bp., 726; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1861, 174. HimaNTOPUS. 


206. Genus EREUNETES Illiger. 


Semipalmated Sandpiper. Peep. Bill, tarsus and middle toe with its 
claw, about equal to each other, an inch or less long, but bill very variable, 
and apt to be shorter —%-§; feet semipalmate, with two evident webs; 
length 54-64; wing 34-33; tail 2, doubly emarginate, the central feathers 
projecting. Adult in summer: above, variegated with black, bay, and ashy 
or white, each feather with a black field, reddish edge and whitish tip; 
rump, and upper tail coverts except the lateral ones, blackish; tail feathers 
ashy-gray, the central darker; primaries dusky, the shaft of the first white ; 
a dusky line from bill to eye, and a white superciliary line; . 
below, pure white, usually rufescent on the breast, and with 
more or less dusky speckling on the throat, breast and sides, 
in young birds usually wanting; in winter the upper parts 
mostly plain ashy-gray ; but in any plumage and under any 
variation, the species is known by its small size and 

FIG. 165. semipalmate feet. The extreme variation in the length of 
the bill is from 4 to 14, or 86 per cent. of the average (§). N. Am., 
everywhere an abundant and well known little bird, thronging our beaches 
during the migrations. ZTringa semipalmata Wits., vii, 131, pl. 63, f. 4; 
Noutt., ii, 136; Avup., v, 277, pl. 386; ZHreunetes petrificatus Cass. in 
Bp., 724; 2. pusillus Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1861, 177. Var. occidentalis 
Lawre., zbid. 1864, 107; Exuror, pl. 41. . . . . . = | Seuss 


207-11. Genus TRINGA Linnezus. 
* Bill, tarsus, and middle toe with claw, of about equal length. (Actodromas.) 
+ Upper tail coverts (except the lateral series) black or very dark brown; 
jugulum with an ashy or brownish suffusion, and dusky streaks. 

Least Sandpiper. Peep. Smallest of the sandpipers; 53-6 ; wing 34-33 ; 
tail 2 or less; bill, tarsus, and middle toe with claw, about 32; bill black; 
legs dusky-greenish; upper parts in summer with each feather blackish 
centrally, edged with bright bay, and tipped with ashy or white; in winter, 
and in the young, simply ashy; quills blackish, the shaft of the first white ; 
tail feathers gray with whitish edges, the central blackish, usually with 
reddish edges; crown not conspicuously different from hind neck; chestnut 
edgings of scapulars usually scalloped; below, white, marked as above 
stated. North America, very abundant; this species and the last are usually 
confounded under the common name of “sandpeeps,” and look much alike ; 
but a glance at the toes is sufficient to distinguish them. Tringa minutilla 
VIEILLOT ; Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1861, 191; 7. pusilla Wis., v, 32, 
pl. 37, f. 4; Aup., v, 280, pl. 337; 7. minuta Sw., EF. B-A., tijesear 
Nutr., ti, 119; Z. wilsont Nurt., ii, 121; Cass. in Bp., 721. “minuaeees 


SCOLOPACID, SNIPE, ETC. — 207-11. 255 


Baird’s Sandpiper. Medium; 7-74; wing 43-43; tail 24; bill, tarsus, 
and middle toe with claw about $; bill and feet black; colors almost exactly 
as in the last species ; edgings of upper plumage rather tawny than chestnut ; 
jugular ‘suffusion pale, rather fulvous, the streaks small and sparse, some- 
times almost obsolete. North and South America; rare on the Atlantic 
coast (Long Island, Henshaw; Am. Nat. vi, 306). Tringa schinzii 
Woopz., Sitgreaves Rep. 1853, 100. TZ. bonapartei Cass. in Bp., 722 (in 
part). Z. maculata, SCHLEGEL, Mus. Pays-Bas, Scolopaces, 39 (in part). 
A. bairdii, Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1861, 194; 1866, 97; Sciatrer, Proc. 
Zool. Soc. 1862, 369 (Mexico) ; 1867, 332 (Chili, ete.) ; Dati and Bany., 
Trans. Chicago Acad. i, 292 (Alaska) ; Aten, Bull. M. C. Z., 1872, 182 
(Kansas); Hartine, Ibis, 1870, 151 (S. Africa!l). . . . . BarRpil. 

Pectoral Sandpiper. Jack Snipe. Grass Snipe. Large; 84-9; wing 
5-54; bill, tarsus, and middle toe with claw about 14; bill and feet greenish ; 
crown noticeably different from cervix ; edging of scapulars bright chestnut, 
straight-edged ; chin whitish, definitely contrasted with the heavily ashy- 
shaded and sharply dusky-streaked jugulum. North America, abundant. 
Norr., ii, 111; Aup., v, 259, pl. 359; Cass. in Bp., 720. . macuLaTa. 

+i Upper tail coverts white, with or without dusky marks; jugulum sharply 
streaked, but with little or no ashy suffusion. 

White-rumped Sandpiper. Medium; size of bairdii; feet black; bill 
black, light-colored at base below; plumage as in the foregoing species, 
excepting the above particulars. An ashy wash on the jugulum is hardly 
appreciable except in young birds, and then it is slight; the streaks are 
very numerous, broad and distinct, extending as specks nearly or quite to 
the bill, and as shaft lines along the sides ; while the white upper tail coverts 
are a diagnostic feature. Eastern N. Am. to the Rocky Mountains. 
Western? An abundant species along the Atlantic Coast. J. schinzit 
Sw., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 384; Nurr., ii, 109; Aup., v, 275; J. bonapartii 
ee eee es. 6S a. CSCC |) BONAPARTE. 

Cooper’s Sandpiper. Largest; 94; wing 53; tail 22; bill 14; tarsus 1}; 
Like the last in color. Long Island; only one specimen known. It is 
uncertain whether this is a good species or an unusual state of 7. canutus 
or A. maculata. Bp., 716; Couzs, Proce. Phila. Acad. 1861, 202. cooPERI. 

** Bill, tarsus, and middle toe, obviously not of equal length. 

{ Tarsus shorter than middle toe; tibise feathered. (Arquatella.) 

Purple Sandpiper. Bill little longer than head, much longer than tarsus, 
straight or nearly so; tibial feathers long, reaching to the joint, though 
the legs are really bare a little way above; tarsus shorter than middle toe; 
8-9; wing 5; tail 2%, rounded; bill 14; tarsus 2; middle toe 1 or a little 
more. Adult: above ashy-black with purplish and violet reflections, most of 
the feathers with pale or white edging ; secondaries mostly white ; line over 
eye, eyelids, and under parts white, the breast and jugulum a pale cast of 
the color of the back, and sides marked with the same. In winter, and 
most immature birds, the colors are similar but much duller; very young 


256 SCOLOPACID, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 207-211. 


birds have tawny edgings above, and are mottled with ashy and dusky 
below. Atlantic coast, rather common. Noutvr., ii, 115; Aup., v, 261, 
330; Cass. in Bp., 717. 1.6.6) es eo we 


+} Tarsus not shorter than middle toe; tibize bare below. 
+-Bill slightly decurved, much longer than tarsus. (Pelidna.) 


American Dunlin.  Black-bellied Sandpiper. Red-backed Sandpiper. 
Ox-bird. Bill longer than head or tarsus, compressed at the base, rather 
depressed at the end, and usually appreciably decurved ; 8-9; wing 43-5 ; 
tail 2-24; bill 14-12; tibiee bare about $; tarsus 1 or rather more; middle 
toe and claw 1 or rather less. Adult in summer: above, chestnut, each 
feather with a central black field, and most of them whitish-tipped, rump 

and upper tail coverts blackish, tail 
feathers and wing coverts ashy-gray, 
quills dusky with pale shafts, second- 
aries mostly white, and inner pri- 
maries edged with the same; under 
parts white, belly with a broad, jet- 
black area, breast and jugulum 
thickly streaked with dusky; bill 
and feet black. Adult in winter, and young: above, plain ashy-gray, with 
dark shaft lines, with or without red or black traces; below white, little or 
no trace of black on belly; jugulum with few dusky streaks and an ashy 
suffusion. N. Am. WHuts., vii, 25, pl. 56; f. 2; 39, pl. 57, 1. oe oem 
106; Aup., v, 266, pl. 332; Cass. in Bp., 719. ALPINA var. AMERICANA. 


Fic. 166. Bill and foot of American Dunlin. 


+-+ Bill much decurved, slightly longer than tarsus. (Ancylocheilus.) 


Curlew Sandpiper. Bill longer than head or tarsus, compressed through- 


out, decurved; size of the last; legs longer; tibize bare #; tarsus 14; 
middle toe and claw under an inch; Dill about 14. Adult in summer: 
above, greenish-black, each feather tipped and edged with yellowish-red ; 
below, deep brownish-red ; upper tail coverts white with dusky bars ;. tail 
ashy-gray, with greenish gloss; wing coverts ashy with reddish edgings and 
dusky shaft lines; quills dusky, the shafts whitish along their central por- 
tion; bill and feet greenish-black. Adult in winter, and young: similar; 
above, duller blackish with little reddish ; below, white, more or less buffy- 
tinged, the jugulum dusky-streaked. Atlantic coast, extremely rare, little 
more than a straggler; Europe; Asia; Africa. Nurtt., ii, 104; Aup., v, 
269, pl. 8338; Cass.in Bo’, 718... 9... «2 « '. & 2 Sc 
+++ Bill perfectly straight. (Tringa.) 

Ted-breasted Sandpiper. -Ash-colored Sandpiper. Gray-back. Robin- 
snipe. Knot. Bill equalling or rather exceeding the head, straight, compar- 
atively stout; toes evidently shorter than tarsus; large, 10-11; wing 6-64; 
tail 25, nearly square; bill about 14 (very variable); tarsus 14; middle 
toe and claw 1; tibize bare $ or more. Adult in summer: above, brownish- 
black, each feather tipped with ashy-white, and tinged with reddish on the 


SCOLOPACIDE, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 212, 213. 257 


seapulars; below, uniform brownish-red, much as in the robin, fading into 
white on the flanks and crissum; upper tail coverts white with dusky bars ; 
tail feathers and secondaries grayish-ash with white edges; quills blackish, 
gray on the inner webs and with white shafts; bill and feet blackish. 
Young: above clear ash, with numerous black-and-white semicircles ; below 
white, more or less tinged with reddish, dusky-speckled on breast, wavy- 
barred on sides. Atlantic coast, abundant. Wuts., vii, 36, 43, pl. 57, f. 2, 
5; Norr., ii, 125; Aup., v, 254, pl. 328; Cass. in Bp., 715. . canurus. 


212. Genus CALIDRIS Cuvier. 


Sanderling. Ruddy Plover. No hind toe; otherwise, form exactly as 
in Tringa proper; 73-8; wing 43-5; tail 24; bill about 1; tarsus 1 or 
rather less; middle toe and claw ?. Adult in summer: head, neck and 
upper parts varied with black, ashy and bright 
reddish; below from the breast pure white; tail 
except central feathers light ash, nearly white ; 
primaries gray with blackish edges and tips, the 
shafts of all and bases of most, white ; secondaries 
white except a space at the end, and greater coverts 
broadly white-tipped ; bill and feet black. Adult 
in winter, and young: little or no reddish ; speckled 
with black and white, or ash and white, below 
white, sometimes tawny-tinged on the jugulum. 
N. Am., coastwise, abundant. WI1s., vii, 68, 129, pl. 59, f. 4; pl. 63, f. 3; 
Nort.. ii, 4; Aup., v, 287, pl. 338; Cass. in Bp., 723. . . ARENARIA. 


- Fic. 167. Foot of Sanderling. 


213. Genus LIMOSA Brisson. 


Great Marbled Godwit. Marlin. Tail barred throughout with black and 
rufous ; rump and upper tail coverts like the back ; no pure white anywhere. 
General plumage rufous or cinnamon-brown; below, nearly unmarked and 
of very variable shade, usually deepest on 
the lining of the wings; above, variegated 
with black and brown or gray ; quills rufous 
and black ; bill flesh colored, largely tipped 
with black ; feet dark. Large ; 16-22; wing 
about 9; tail about 33; bill 4-5, grooved 
nearly to the end, usually slightly recurved ; 
tibiz bare 1-14; tarsus 24-34, scutellate 
before and behind; toes 14, stout. Tem- 
perate North America, abundant; conspic- 
uous by its size and coloration among the 
waders that throng the shores and muddy 
or sandy bars of bays and estuaries during 
the migration ; breeds in the U.S. as well as northward. Wu1s., vii, 30, pl. 
56, f.1; Nourr., ii, 173; Aup., v, 331, pl. 348; Cass. in Bp., 740. FEDOA. 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 33 


Fic. 168. Great Marbled Godwit. 


258 SCOLOPACIDA, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 214-216. 


White-tailed Godwit. Tail, its upper coverts and rump, white, barred 
throughout with black; head, neck and under parts rusty-red in the breeding 
season, in winter whitish; above, grayish-brown, the feathers with darker 


centres, and blackish shaft lines ; sides and crissum with sagittate black marks. - 


About the size of the last. A widely distributed Old World species, and a 
very near relative of L. rufa of Europe, lately discovered in Alaska (Dall). 
Bp., Trans., Chicago Acad.:1,,320, pl. 82... . . » «  . UROPRGRAEam 

HHudsonian or Black-tailed Godwit. Ling-tailed Marlin. Tail black, 
largely white at the base, its coverts mostly white ; rump blackish ; lining of 
wings extensively blackish; under parts in the breeditig season intense 
rufous, variegated (chiefly barred) with dusky; head, neck and upper parts 
brownish-black, variegated with gray, reddish, and usually with some 
whitish speckling; quills blackish, more or less white at the base. Young 
and apparently winter specimens much paler, tawny whitish below, more 
gray above. Considerably smaller than either of the foregoing; about 15; 
wing 8 or less; bill 34 or less; tarsus 24 or less. North America, rather 
northerly, apparently not common in the United States; a near relative of 
LI. egocephala of Europe. Nurr., ii, 175; Avup., v, 335, pl. 349; Cass. 
in. Bod: Tatense | lat at ae Mel cae 0 


214-16. Genus TOTANUS Bechstein. 

* Toes with 2 subequal webs; legs bluish or dark. (Symphemia.) 

Willet. Semipalmated Tattler. Bill straight, comparatively 
stout, grooved little if any more than half its length; toes 
with two conspicuous basal webs; 12-16; wing 7-8; tail 
Fic. 169. Base of 23-23 Dill or tarsus 2-23; tibie bare 1 or more; middle toe 

toes of Willet. and claw 14-2. In summer, gray above, with numerous 
black marks, white below, the jugulum streaked, the breast, sides and 
crissum barred or with arrow-shaped marks of dusky (in winter, and in 
young birds all these dark marks few or wanting, except on jugulum) ; upper 
tail coverts, most of the secondaries, and basal half of primaries, white ; 
ends of primaries, their coverts, lining of wings, and axillars, black; bill 
bluish or dark. Temperate N. Am., abundant; resident in the U.S., con- 
spicuous in the marshes of the Atlantic coast. Wus., vii, 27, pl. 56, f. 3 : 
Nourtt., ii, 144; Aup., v, 324, pl. 347; Cass. in Bp., 729. sSEMIPALMATA. 

** Toes with inner web very small; legs yellow or green. ((lottis.) 

Greater Tell-tale. Greater Yellow-shanks. Stone-snipe. Tattler. Bill 
straight or slightly bent upward, very slender, grooved half its length or 
less, black ; legs long and slender, yellow. In summer, ashy-brown above 
varied with black and speckled with whitish, below, white, jugulum streaked, 
and breast, sides and crissum speckled or barred, with blackish, these latter 
marks fewer or wanting in winter and in the young; upper tail coverts white 
with dark bars; tail feathers marbled or barred with ashy or white; quills 
blackish. Large; length over 12; wing over 7; tail 3 or more; bill 2 or 
more; tarsus about 24; middle toe and claw 14; tibie bare 14. N. Am., 


SCOLOPACID, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 214-216. 259 


abundant, migratory; like the last, a restless noisy denizen of the marshes, 
bays and estuaries. Wuts., vi, 57, pl. 58; Nort. «5 it, 1483. Aup., ¥,316, 
pl. 345; Cass.in Bp., 731. . . . . x . . »  MELANOLEUCUS. 


Fic. 170. Greater Tell-tale. 


Lesser Tell-tale. Yellow-shanks. A miniature of the last; colors pre- 
cisely the same; legs comparatively longer; bill grooved rather further. 
Length under 12; wing under 7; tail under 3; bill under 2; tarsus about 2; 
middle toe and claw, and bare tibia, each, 14. Eastern (and Western?) 
N. Am., abundant, in the same places as the last. Wus., vii, 55, pl. 57; 
Norr., ii, 152; Avup., v, 313, pl. 344; Cass. in Bp., 732. . ~ FLAVIPES. 

Green-shanks. Size and form almost exactly as in the last species; bill 
longer, about 24; colors nearly the same, but bill and legs greenish; rump 
and lower back, as well as the tail and its coverts, white, with more or fewer 
dark marks. Florida. 7. glottis Aup., v, 321, pl. 346; Nurr., ii, 68; 
Glottis floridanus Cass. in Bp., 730. There is no reason to suppose that 
this bird is any thing more than a straggler to this country; Audubon’s 
specimen is Suiatcly identical with European ones. . . . CHLOROPUS. 


*** Toes with inner web rudimentary; legs blackish. (Rhyacophilus.) 


Solitary Tattler. Bill perfectly straight, very slender, grooved little beyond 
its middle; 8-9; wing 5; tail 24; bill, tarsus, and middle toe, each about 
1-14; tibie bare 3. Dark lustrous olive-brown, streaked on the head and 
neck, elsewhere finely speckled, with whitish; below, white, jugulum and 
sides of neck with brownish suffusion, and dusky streaks; rump and upper 
tail coverts like the back; tail, 
axillars and lining of wings beauti- 
fully barred with black and white; 
quills entirely blackish ; bill and feet 
blackish; young duller above, less 
speckled, jugulum merely suffused 
with grayish-brown. N. America, 
abundant, migratory; a shy, quiet inhabitant of wet woods, moist meadows 
and secluded pools, rather than of the marshes; breeds in mountainous 
portions of the U.S., and northward. Whuts., vi, 53, pl. 58; Nutt., ii, 
199; Aup., v, 309, pl. 343; Cass. in Bp., 733. . . °. . SOLITARIUS. 


Fic. 171. Solitary Tattler. 


260 SCOLOPACIDE, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 217, 218, 219. 


217. Genus TRINGOIDES Eonaparte. 


Spotted Sandpiper. Bill short, straight, grooved nearly to tip; 7-8; 
wing about 4; tail about 2; bill, tarsus and middle toe, each, about 1. 
Above, olive (quaker-color; exactly as in a cuckoo) with a coppery lustre, 
finely varied with black ; line over eye, and entire under parts, pure white, 
with numerous sharp circular black spots, larger and more crowded in the 9 
than in the g, entirely wanting in very young birds; secondaries broadly 
white-tipped and inner primaries with a 
white spot; most of the tail feathers like 
the back, with subterminal black bar and 
white tip; bill pale yellow, tipped with 
black ; feet flesh-color. N. Am., extremely 
abundant everywhere near water, and 
breeding throughout the country; famil- 
iarly known as the sandlark, peetweet, teeter-tail, tip-up, ete., these last 
names being given in allusion to its habit (shared by allied species) of 
jetting the tail as it moves; a custom as marked as the continual bobbing of 
the head of the solitary tattler and others. Nest a slight affair of dried 
grasses, on the ground, often in a field or orchard, but generally near water ; 
eges 4, pointed, creamy or clay colored, blotched with blackish and neutral 
tint. ‘WiILs., vil, 60, pl. 59, f. 1; Nurt., ii, 162; Aup., v, 303, pl. 842% 
(GRGSS TAD sy TOO. Ges whee s. car ee ; - - + MACULARIUS. 


Fic. 172. Spotted Sandpiper. 


218. Genus PHILOMACHUS Moebhring. 


Ruf (3). Reeve (9). Bill straight, about as long as the head, 
grooved nearly to tip; gape reaching behind culmen; outer and middle toe 
webbed at base, inner cleft; tail barred; ¢ in the breeding season with the 
face bare and beset with papille, and the neck with an extravagant ruff of 
elongated feathers ; a endlessly variable in color; about 10; wing 
64-7; tail 24-3; bill 14; tarsus 1#; middle toe and claw 14; 9 smaller, 
the head fully feathered, am no ruff. A widely distributed bird of the Old 
World, noted for its pugnacity; occasionally killed on the coast of New 
England and the Middle States; some half dozen instances are recorded. 
Nourt., ii, 131; Cass. in Bp., 737; Lawe:, Ann. Lye. N. ¥. 185230220 
(Long Island) ; Brewster, Am. Nat. vi, 306 (Massachusetts). . PUGNAX. 


219. Genus ACTITURUS Bonaparte. 


Bartramian Sandpiper. Upland Plover. Field Plover. Bill straight, 
about as long as the head, grooved # its length, the gape very deep, 
reaching nearly to below the eyes, the feathers extending on the upper 
mandible beyond those on the lower, which do not fill the interramal space ; 
tail very long, more than half the wing, graduated; tarsi much longer than 
the middle toe and claw ; tibise bare nearly the length of the latter; length 
11-13% wing 6-7; tail 3-4; bill 1-14; middle toe and claw the same; - 


SCOLOPACID®, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 220, 221. 261 


tarsus about 2. Above blackish, with a slight greenish reflection, varie- 
gated with tawny and whitish; below, pale tawny of varying shade, 
bleaching on throat and belly; jugulum with streaks, breast and sides with 
arrowheads and bars, of blackish; axillars and lining of wings pure 
white, black-barred; quills blackish, with white bars on the inner webs; 
tail varied with tawny, black and white, chiefly in bars; bill and legs pale, 
former black-tipped. N. Am., abundant, migratory; a highly esteemed 
game bird found usually in flocks, in fields, not necessarily near water ; 
feeds chiefly on insects. Wits., vii, 63, pl. 59, f. 2; Aup., v, 248, pl. 
Seeman. 1.168; Cass. im Bp., 737. . . . . . . BARTRAMIUS. 


220. Genus TRYNGITES Cabanis. 


Bug-breasied Sandpiper. Bill extremely small and slender, appearing 
the more so because of the extension of the feathers on its base—on the 
upper mandible, quite to the nostrils, nevertheless not reaching nearly so far 
as on the sides of the lower, and the interramal space completely filled ; 
gape reaching beyond base of culmen; basal webbing of toes rudimentary, 
hardly noticeable; tail rounded, with projecting central feathers; 7-8; 
wing 5—5$; tail 24; tarsus 14; middle toe and claw, and bill, under an inch. 
Quills largely white on the inner web, and with beautiful black marbling or 
mottling, best seen from below; tail unbarred, gray, the central feathers 
darker, all with subterminal black edging and white tips; crown and upper 
parts blackish, the feathers with whitish and tawny edging, especially on the 
wings; sides of the head, neck all round, 
and under parts, pale rufous, or fawn color, 
speckled on the neck and breast with dusky ; 
bill black; feet greenish-yellow. N. Am., 
generally distributed in open country, but 
apparently not abundant; a remarkable bird 
both in form and coloration, in the latter 
respect somewhat resembling the foregoing, with which it shares many 
habits. Nurtr., ii, 113; Aup., v, 264, pl. 331; Cass. in Bp., 739. RUFESCENS. 


221. Genus HETEROSCELUS Baird. 


Wandering Tattler. Bill straight, stout, compressed, grooved about % its 
length, gape reaching beyond base of culmen; legs rather short, rugous, 
reticulate, scutellate only in front of the tarsus; outer toe with an evident 
basal web, inner with a rudimentary one; 104; wing 63; tail 34; bill 13; 
tarsus 14; tail unbarred; plumage variable, generally uniform plumbeous- 
gray above, below white shaded on breast and sides, or barred on the latter, 
with the color of the upper parts. A species of almost universal distribution 
on the coasts and islands of the Pacific, described under at least twelve 
different .names, without counting its various generic appellations. ZZ. 
Ane HH D,, 704, 2 3. ww lw Ce) CINOANUS. 


262 SCOLOPACIDA, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 222. 


222. Genus NUMENIUS Linneus. 


Long-billed Curlew. Sickle-bill. Bill of extreme length and curvature, 
measuring from 5 to 8 or 9 inches; total length about 2 feet; wing a foot 
or less; tail about 4 inches; tarsus 24-2%, scutellate only in front. 
: Plumage very similar to that of the godwit; 
prevailing tone rufous, of varying intensity in 
different birds and on different parts of the same 
bird, usually more intense under the wing than 
* elsewhere; below, the jugulum streaked, and 
the breast and sides with arrow-heads and bars, 
of dusky ; above, variegated with black, especi- 
ally on the crown, back and wings; tail barred 
throughout with black and rufous; secondaries 
rufous ; primaries blackish and rufous ; no pure white anywhere ; bill black, 
the under mandible flesh colored for some distance ; legs dark. Temperate 
N. Am., abundant; breeds in the U. S. Wuts., viii, 23, pl. 64; Norr., 
ii, 94; Aup., vi, 35, pl. 355; Cass. in Bp., 743. . . . LONGIROSTRIS. 

Hudsonian Curlew. Jack Curlew. Bill medium, 3 or 4 inches long; 
length 16-18 ; wing 9; tail 3$; tarsus 24-23. Plumage as in last species 
in pattern, but general tone much paler; quills barred. N. Am., abundant; 
breeds in British America; U.S. chiefly during the migrations. Scolopax 
borealis Wixs., vii, 92, pl. 56; WV. intermedius Nurt., ii, 100. AvD., vi, 
42, pl. 356; Nurtrt., ii, 97; Cass. in Bp., 744... . .« “SUDSONmemE 

Esquimaux Curlew. Dough-bird. Bill small, under 3 inches long; 
length 12-15 inches; wing under 9; tail 3; tarsus 2. Plumage in tone and 
pattern almost exactly as in the last species, but averaging moré rufous, 
especially under the wings, and primaries not barred. N. Am., abundant; 
distribution much as in the last species. Swarns., Fn. B.-Am., ii, 378, pl. 
65; Nurr., ii, 101; Avup., vi, 45, pl. 357; Cass. in Bp., 744. BOREALIS. 


Fig. 174. Long-billed Curlew. 


Suborder HERODIONES. Herons and their Allies. 
The character of this group has been indicated on p. 240. 


Family TANTALIDA. Ibises. Spoonbills. 


Under this head I associate the genera Tantalus, Platalea and Ibis, with its 
subdivisions ; all of these, especially the first, are very nearly related to the storks 
(Ciconiide) ; the last two agree more closely with each other, in the remarkable 
smallness of the tongue, and other characters. In all, the pterylosis is more or 
less completely stork-like. The head is more or less perfectly bare of feathers in 
the adult state, downy in young. Birds of medium and very large size, long- 
legged, long-necked and small-bodied, like the cranes, storks and herons, with 
ample, more or less rounded wings, of which the inner quills are very large; tail 
very short, usually, if not always, of 12 broad rectrices; tibia bare for a long 
distance ; tarsi reticulate, or scutellate in front only ; toes four, the anterior webbed 


td - 
al 7 
PA 


TANTALID, IBISES, SPOONBILLS.—GEN. 224, 225-6. 263 


at base, the hinder lengthened and inserted low down, as in storks and herons (not 
eranes) ; middle claw not pectinate as in the herons. Chiefly lacustrine and palus- 
trine inhabitants of the warmer parts of the globe, feeding on fish, reptiles and 
other animals. The sexes are alike; the : 

young different. The manifest modification 
of the bill isthe principal external character 
of the three subfamilies into which the group 
is divisible. 


Subfamily TANTALINA. Wood Ibises. 


Bill long, extremely stout at base, where 
it is as broad as the face, gradually tapering 
to the decurved tip, without nasal groove or 
membrane, the nostrils directly perforating 
its substance. One genus and three or four 
species of America, Africa, Southern Asia, “4 f/ 
and part of the East Indies. NE 


9294. Genus TANTALUS Linneus. 


Wood Ibis. Adult with head and ps SUE aed 
part of the neck naked, corrugate, bluish; legs blue; bill pale greenish ; 
plumage entirely white, excepting the quills, tail, primary coverts and alula, 
which are glossy black; young with the head downy-feathered, the plumage 
dark gray, the quills and tail blackish; about 4 feet long; wing 18-20 
inches; bill 8-9; tarsus 7-8. Wooded swampy places in the Southern 
states, N. to Ohio and the Carolinas, W. to the Colorado, abundant; grega- 
rious; nests in trees and bushes. Whuts., viii, 39, pl. 66; Nurrt., ii, 82; 
MeeeeenGtonl. gol; bo.,682. .. . . . . . =. . LOCULATOR. 


Subfamily IBIDINAE. Ibises. 


- Bill long, very slender, curved throughout, and grooved nearly or quite to the 

tip (thus closely resembling a curlew’s). There are about twenty species of ibises, 
among which minor details of form vary considerably, nearly every one of them 
haying been made the type of some genus. They probably form two genera, Ibis, with 
the tarsi scutellate in front, and Geronticus, with the legs entirely reticulate. Our 
species vary in the nakedness of the head, which in one is little more than in the 
herons, and in none is it complete, as in the preceding and following genus. 


225-6. Genus IBIS Moehring. 


Glossy Ibis. Plumage rich dark chestnut, changing to glossy dark green 
with purplish reflections on the head, wings and elsewhere; bill dark; 
young similar, much duller, or grayish-brown, especially on the head and 
neck, which are white-streaked. Claws slender, nearly straight; head bare 
only about the eyes and between the forks of the jaw. Length about 2 feet ; 
wing 10-11; tail 4; bill 45; tarsus 34; middle toe and claw 3. U.S., 
generally but irregularly distributed, chiefly southerly and especially coast- 
wise; N. casually to New England. Bonar., Am. Orn. iv, 23, pl. 23; 
Norr., ii, 88; Auvup., vi, 50, 358; Bp., 685. . FALCINELLUS var. ORDII. 


264 TANTALIDZ, IBISES, SPOONBILLS.—GEN. 227. 


White Ibis. Plumage pure white, outer primaries tipped with glossy black ; 
bill and feet reddish; young dull brown or gray, the legs bluish, the bill 
yellowish. Claws curved; face and throat bare in the adult. Size of the 
last or rather larger; bill 7; tarsus 4. South Atlantic and Gulf States, 
casually N. to Long Island (Lawrence). Wuts., viii, 43, pl. 66; Nurt., 
ii, 86; AuD., vi, 54, pl. 860; .Bp., 684. . 4 «es aa 

Scarlet I as, Plumage rich sate outer primaries sae with glossy 
black; bill and feet redtiish. Young ashy-gray, darker above, paler_or 
whitish below. Size and proportions ate as in the last species. Tropical 
America; accidental in the U.S. (Louisiana; seen at a distance, not pro- 
cured, Audubon; Rio Grande, fragment of a specimen examined, Cowes.) 
WILs., viii, 41, pl. 66; Nurt., ii, 84; Aup., vi, 53, pl. 359 ; Bp., 683. RUBRA. 


Subfamily PLATALEINA. Spoonbiiis. 


Bill long, perfectly flat, remarkably widened, rounded and spoon-shaped at the 
end. Birds of this group are known at a glance, by the singularity of the bill; 
they closely resemble the foregoing in structure and habit. One genus, with five or 
six species of various countries. 


227. Genus PLATALEA lLinneus. 


Roseate Spoonbill. In full plumage rosy-red, whitening on neck; lesser 
wing coverts, tail coverts, and lower throat crimson; tail brownish-yellow ; 
legs pale carmine ; bare head yellowish-green, with a dark stripe ; bill mostly 
grayish-blue. Young with the head mostly feathered, colors much less vivid 
(no crimson) ; tail rosy; in an early stage probably grayish. Length about 
30; wing 14-15; tail 4-5; tarsus 4; bill 6-7. South Atlantic and Gulf 
states, N. casually to the Carolinas and Natchez (Audubon); common; 
gregarious; breeds on trees and bushes in the wooded swamps. WILS., Vii, 
123, pl. 62; Norr., ii, 79; Aup., ii, 72, pl. 362; Bp., 686. 3) eee 


Family ARDEIDA. Herons. 


It is in this family that powder-down tracts (p. 4, § 6) reach their highest 
development; and although these peculiar feathers occur in some other birds, 
there appears to be then only a single pair; so that the presence of two or more 
pairs is probably diagnostic of this family. In the genus Ardea and its immediate 
allies there are three pairs, the normal number; one on the lower back over the 
hips, one on the lower belly under the hips, and one on the breast, along the track 
of the furcula. In the bitterns, the second of these is wanting. In the boat-billed 
heron, Cancroma cochlearia, there is still another pair, over the shoulder blades. 
There are other pterylographic characters; in general, the tracts (p. 5, § 9) are 
extremely narrow, often only two feathers wide; there are lateral neck tracts ; the 
lower neck is frequently bare behind. More obvious characters are, the complete 
feathering of the head (as compared with storks, etc.) except definite nakedness of 
the lores alone—the bill appearing to run directly into the eyes; a general 
looseness of the plumage (as compared with Zimicole), and especially the frequent 
development of remarkably lengthened, or otherwise modified, feathers, constituting 


ARDEID®, HERONS. 265 


the beautiful crests and dorsal plumes that ornament many species, but which, as a 
rule, are worn only during the breeding season. These features will suffice to deter- 
mine the Ardeide, taken in connection with the more general ones indicated under 
head of Herodiones, and the details given beyond. 

- The boat-billed heron of Central America, with a singular shape of the bill that 
has suggested the name, and the four pairs of powder-down tracts, constitutes one 
subfamily, Canecromine. The still more remarkable Baleniceps rex, of Africa, with 
an enormous head and bill, thick neck, and one pair of such tracts, is probably 
assignable here as a second subfamily, Balenicepine ; but it approaches the storks, 
and may form a separate intermediate family. The disputed cases of Rhinochetus, 
EBurypyga and Scopus have been already mentioned; these five forms aside, the 
herons all fall in the single 


Subfamily ARDEINZ. True Herons. 


Bill longer than head, straight, or very nearly so, more or less compressed, acute, 
cultrate (with sharp cutting edges) ; upper mandible with a long groove; nostrils 
more or less linear, pervious. Head narrow and elongate, sloping down to the bill, 
its sides flattened. Lores naked, rest of head feathered, the frontal feathers 
extending in a rounded outline on the base of the culmen, generally to the nostrils. 
Wings broad and ample; the inner quills usually as long as the primaries, when 
closed. Tail very short, of twelve (usually), or fewer soft broad feathers. Tibize 
naked below, sometimes for a great distance. Tarsi scutellate in front, and some- 
times behind, generally reticulate there and on the sides. Toes long and slender ; 
the outer usually connected with the middle by a basal web, the hinder very long 
(for this order), inserted on the level of the rest. Hind claw larger and more 
curved than the middle one (always?) ; the middle claw pectinate. 

The group thus defined offers little variation in form; all the numerous genera 
now in yogue have been successively detached from Ardea, the typical one, with 
which most of them should be reunited. The night herons (235-6) differ 
somewhat in shortness and especially stoutness of bill; while the bitterns (237, 
and the South American genus Tigrisoma) are still better marked. There are 


‘about seventy-five species, very generally distributed over the globe, but especially 


abounding in the torrid and temperate zones. Those that penetrate to cold 
countries in summer, are regular migrants; the others are generally stationary. 
They are maritime, lacustrine and paludicole birds, drawing their chief sustenance 
from animal substances taken from the water, or from soft ground in its vicinity ; 
such as fish, reptiles, testaceans and insects, captured by a quick thrust of the 
spear-like bill, given as the bird stands in wait or wades stealthily along. In 
conformity with this, the gullet is capacious, but without special dilation, the 
stomach is small and little muscular, the intestines are long and extremely 
slender, with a large globular cloaca, and a cecum. Herons are altricial, and 
generally nest in trees or bushes (where their insessorial feet enable them to 
perch with ease) in swampy or other places near the water, often in large 
communities, building a large flat rude structure of sticks. The eggs vary in 
number, coincidently, it would seem, with the size of the species; the larger 
herons generally lay two or three, the smaller kinds five or six; the eggs are 
somewhat elliptical in shape, and usually of an unvariegated bluish or greenish 
shade. The voice is a rough croak. The sexes are nearly always alike in color 
(remarkable exception in gen. 238); but the species in which, as in the bittern, 
KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 34 


266 ARDEIDA, ITERONS. 


the plumage is nearly unchangeable, are very few. Indeed, probably no birds show " 
greater changes of plumage, with age and season, than nearly all the herons. 
Their beautiful plumes are only worn during the breeding season; the young” 
invariably lack them, and there are still more remarkable. changes of plumage 
in many cases. Thus, the young may be pure white while the adults are dark 
colored, as in the small blue heron; and sometimes even, as in the remarkable 
case of our reddish egret, most individuals change from white to a dark 


plumage after two years, while others appear to remain white their whole lives, 
De a 


Fic. 176. Great Blue Heron. 


and others again are dark from the nest. Many species are pure white at all 
times, and to these the name of ‘‘ egret” more particularly belongs; but I should 
correct a prevalent impression that an egret is anything particularly different 
from other herons. The name, a corruption of the French word “ aigrette,” simply 
refers to the plumes that ornament most of the herons, white or otherwise, and 
has no classificatory meaning; its application, in any given instance, is purely 
conventional. The colors of the bill, lores and feet are extremely variable, not 
only with age or season, but as individual peculiarities; sometimes the two legs of 
the same specimen are not colored exactly alike. The 9 is commonly smaller than 
the g. The normal individual variability in stature and relative length of parts 


gi 


ARDEIDH, HERONS.—GEN. 228-34. 267 


is very great; and it has even been noted that a specimen may have one leg larger 


_than the other, and the toes of one foot longer than those of the other—a circum- 
stance perhaps resulting from the common habit of these birds, of standing for a 


long time on one leg. 


228-34. Genus ARDEA Linneus. 


*Species of large size, and varied dark colors. (Ardea.) 

Great Blue Heron. Back without peculiar plumes at any season, but 
seapulars lengthened and lanceolate ; an occipital crest, two feathers of which 
are long and filamentous; long loose feathers on the lower neck. Length 
about 4 feet; extent 6; bill 54 inches; tarsus 64; middle toe and claw 5; 
wing 18-20; tail 7. 9 much smaller than ¢. Adult of both sexes grayish- 
blue above, the neck pale purplish-brown with a white throat-line, the head 
black with a white frontal patch, the under parts mostly black, streaked 
with white; tibie, edge of wing, and some of the lower neck feathers, 
orange-brown ; bill and eyes yellow, culmen dusky, lores and legs greenish. 
The young differ considerably, but are never white, and cannot be confounded 
with any of the succeeding. Entire temperate North America, abundant ; 
migratory in northerly portions. W§LS., viii, 68, pl. 65; Nurr., ii, 42; 
mewn dee. pl. 369; Bo., 668. -... .. ‘ . « * HERODIAS. 

Florida Heron. Similar; larger; bill 64; oe 8 or more; tibiz bare 
nearly 4 their length; middle toe not 3 the tarsus; below, white, the sides 
streaked with black; neck ashy; head, with the crest, white, the forehead 
streaked with black. Southern Florida ( Wurdemann). Bp., 669. It 
seems improbable that this is anything more than a special state of the last 
species, but as it is useless to exchange one doubtful opinion for another, 
I retain it, pending final determination. . . . - . WURDEMANNII. 

** Species (large or small) white at all times. Dania, Herodias and 
Garzetta.) 

Great White Heron. Size and form nearly as in the foregoing ; no greatly 
elongated occipital feathers nor lengthened scapulars; bill 63; tarsus 8$ ; 
tibize bare 6. Color entirely pure white; bill and eyes yellow; culmen 
greenish at base; lores bluish; legs yellow, greenish in front. Southern 
Florida. Avp., vi, 110, pl. 368; Nurrt., ii, 39; Bp., 670. OCCIDENTALIS. 

Great White Egret. White Heron. No obviously. lengthened feathers 
on the head at any time; in the breeding season, back with very long 
plumes of decomposed feathers drooping far beyond the tail; neck closely 
feathered; plumage entirely white at all seasons; bill, lores and eyes, 
yellow; legs and feet black. Length 36-42 (not including the dorsal 
train); wing 16-17; bill nearly 5; tarsus nearly 6; rather larger speci- 
mens constitute var. californica Bn., 667. Distribution the same as that 
of the snowy heron; abundant. Wuts., vii, 106, pl. 61, f. 4; Nurr., ii, 
Peewee. gyi, 152, pl.370; Bo., 666. . . . . «' « EGRETTA. 

Litlle White Egret. Snowy Heron. Adult with a ioug occipital crest of 


268 ARDEIDZ, HERONS.—GEN. 228-34. 


decomposed feathers, and similar dorsal plumes, latter recurved when per- 
fect; similar, but not recurved plumes on the lower neck, which is bare 
behind; lores, eyes and toes yellow; bill and legs black, former yellow at 
base, latter yellow at the lower part behind. Plumage always entirely white. 
Size of the little blue heron. S. States; Cala. ; Middle States, in summer ; 
N. occasionally to New England; abundant. Wizs., vii, 120, pl. 62, f. 4; 
Nutr., ii, 49; AvupD., vi, 163, pl. 374; Bp., 665. . . . CANDIDISSIMA. 

*** Species under 3 feet long, of varied dark colors when adult, in some cases 
white when young. (Hydranassa, Florida and Butorides.) 

Louisiana Egret. Adult slaty-blue on the back and wings, mostly white 
below and along the throat-line ; crest and most of the neck reddish-purple, 
mixed below with slaty; the longer narrow feathers of the crest white ; 
lower back and rump white, but concealed by the dull purplish-brown 
feathers of the train, which whiten towards the end; bill black and yellow ; 
lores yellow; legs yellowish-green, dusky in front. Young variously 
different, but never white. Length about 24 (exclusive of the long train) ; 
wing 10-11; bill 4-5; tarsus 4; middle toe and claw 3. SS. Atlantic and 
Gulf States, chiefly maritime, very rarely N. to the Middle districts. <A. 
ludoviciana W1LS8., viii, 13, pl. 64, f. 1; Nurr., ii, 51; Aup., vi, 156, pl. 
373 5 Dp.:66a007¢ 8S ie . . LEUCOGASTRA var. LEUCOPRYMNA. 

Reddish Egret. Adult gr aie blue, rather paler below, head and neck 
lilac-brown, ends of the train yellowish; bill black on the terminal third, 
the rest flesh-colored, like the lores; iris white; legs blue, the scales of the 
tarsus blackish; length about 30; wing 14-15; bill 4; tarsus 53. Young 
usually entirely white, for a year or two; some individuals permanently so ; 
bill as in the adult ; legs greenish, with yellowish soles; in this state the bird 
A. pealet Bonar., Am. Orn. iv, 96, pl. 26, f. 1; Nurt., ii, 49; GamBEL, 
Proc. Phila. Acad. 1848, 127; Bp., 661. Florida and Gulf States, strictly ; 
maritime, abundant. Ardea rufescens Aup., vi, 139, pl. 871; Demiegretta 
Tue, BD. GGZ 9s a . os) Bae 

Little Blue Heron. Head of is: aint, Pe lenedhegte decomposed 
feathers, those of the lower neck, and scapulars, elongate and lanceolate ; 
no dorsal plumes; neck bare behind below; length about 24; wing 
11-12; bill 3; tarsus 34-4. Adult slaty-blue, becoming purplish on the 
head and neck; bill and loral space blue, shading to black at the end; 
eyes yellow; legs black. Young pure white, but generally showing blue 
traces, by which it is distinguished from the snowy heron, as well as by 
the color of the bill and feet, though at first the legs are greenish-blue 
with yellowish traces. §. Atlantic and Gulf States, abundant; N. casually 
to New England in summer. WIzLs., vii, 117, yes 62, f. 3; Nurr ieee 
Aub., vi, 1485) pl. 372 3.Bp.,76 71155 3. 1 . . . CRULEA. 

Gren Heron. Adult in the breeding season with the crown, long soft 
occipital crest, and lengthened narrow feathers of the back lustrous dark’ 
green, sometimes with a bronzy iridescence, and on the back often with a 
glaucous cast ; wing coverts green, with conspicuous tawny edgings; neck 


ARDEIDZ, HERONS. —GEN. 235-6, 237. 269 


purplish-chestnut, the throat-line variegated with dusky or whitish; under 
parts mostly dark brownish-ash, belly variegated with white; quills and tail 
greenish-dusky with a glaucous shade, edge of the wing white; some of the 
quills usually white-tipped ; bill greenish-black, much of the under mandible 
yellow; lores and iris yellow; legs greenish-yellow; lower neck with 
lengthened feathers in front, a bare space behind. Young with the head less 
crested, the back without long plumes, but glossy greenish, neck merely 
reddish-brown, and whole under parts white, variegated with tawny and 
dark brown. Length 16-18; wing about 7; bill 245; tarsus 2; middle toe 
and claw about the same; tibie bare 1 or less. U.S., and a little beyond, 
abundant in summer; resident in the South. Wiuts., vii, 97, pl. 61, f. 
Power es; AUuD., vi, 105, pl. 367; Bp., 676. . . . VIRESCENS. 


235-6. Genus NYCTIARDEA Swainson. 

Night Heron. Qua-bird. Squawk. No peculiar feathers excepting 2-3 
very long filamentous plumes springing from the occiput, generally imbricated 
in one bundle; bill very stout; tarsi reticulate below in front; length about 
2 feet; wing 12-14 inches; bill, tarsus and middle toe about 3. Crown, 
seapulars and interscapulars, very dark glossy green; general plumage 
bluish-gray, more or less tinged with lilac; forehead, throat-line and most 
under parts, whitish; occipital plumes white; bill black; lores greenish ; 
eyes red; feet yellow. Young very different; lacking the plumes; grayish- 
brown, paler below, extensively speckled with white ; quills chocolate-brown, 
white-tipped. U.S., and somewhat northward, abundait; resident in the 
South, migratory elsewhere. A. nycticorax Wi1s., vii, 101, pl. 61, f. 
2, 3; Aup., vi, 82, pl. 363; A. discors Nutr., ii, 54; WV. gardeni Bo., 
678; A. nevia Bopp., Planches Enluminées, 939. . GRISEA var. NAEVIA. 

Yellow-crowned Night Heron. Adult with the head crested, some of the 
feathers extremely long, and back with long loose feathers, some of which 
reach beyond the tail; bill short, extremely stout; tarsi mostly reticulate, 
longer than middle toe; about as large as the last; bill 23; tarsus 33; 
middle toe 3. Grayish-plumbeous, darker on the back, where the feathers 
have black centres and pale edges; and rather paler below, the head and 
upper neck behind black, with a cheek-patch, the crown, and most of the 
crest, white, more or less tinged with tawny ; bill black, eyes orange, lores 
greenish, feet black and yellow. Young speckled, as in the last, but show- 
ing the different proportions of the bill and feet. Wimuts., viii, 26, pl. 65, 
Siwrns, 1,525 AUD., vi, 89, pl. 364; Bp., 679. . . . VIOLACEUS. 


237. Genus BOTAURUS Stephens. 


Bittern. Indian Hen. Stake-driver. Bog-bull. Plumage of the upper 
parts singularly freckled with brown of various shades, blackish, tawny and 
whitish ; neck and under parts ochrey or tawny white, each feather marked 
with a brown dark-edged stripe, the throat-line white, with brown streaks, 
a velvety black patch on each side of the neck above; crown dull brown, 


a 


270 ARDEIDH, HERONS. —GEN. 238. ‘ 


with buff superciliary stripe; tail brown; quills greenish-black, with a 
glaucous shade, brown-tipped ; bill black and yellowish, legs greenish, soles 
yellow; 23-28 long; wing 10-13; tail 44, of only 10 feathers; bill about 
3; tarsus about 33. Temperate N. Am., abundant. Not gregarious; nests 
on the ground; eggs 4—5, drab-colored. Wixs., viii, 35, pl. 65, f. 35 Norm; 
ii, 60; Aup., vi, 94, pl. 365; Bp., 674. Enpicorr, Am. Nat. iii, 169. minor. 


FiGc.177. Bittern. 


238. Genus ARDETTA Gray. 


Least Bittern. No peculiar feathers, but those of the lower neck long 
and loose, as in the bittern; size very small; 11-14 inches long; wing 4-5; 
tail 2 or less; bill 2 or less; tarsus about 1%. Sexes dissimilar. ¢ with 
the slightly crested crown, back and tail, glossy greenish-black; neck 
behind, most of the wing coverts, and outer edges of inner quills, rich 
chestnut, other wing coverts brownish-yellow; front and sides of neck, and 
under parts, brownish-yellow, varied with white along the throat-line, the 
sides of the breast with a blackish-brown patch; bill and lores mostly pale 
yellow, the culmen blackish; eyes and soles yellow; legs greenish-yellow ; 
@ with the black of the back entirely, that of the crown mostly or wholly, 
replaced by rich purplish-chestnut, the edges of the scapulars forming a 
brownish-white stripe on either side. U. S., common. WItS., viii, 37, pl. 
65, f.4; Nurv., ii, 66; Aup., vi, 100, pl. 366; Bp., 673. ~ . |.) maaan 


Family GRUIDA:. Cranes. 


As already intimated, cranes are related to rails in essential points of structure, 
though more resembling herons in their general aspect. They are all large birds, 
some being of immense stature; the legs and neck are extremely long, the wings 
ample, and the tail short, usually of twelve broad feathers. The head is generally, 
in part, naked and papillose or wattled in the adult, with a growth of hair-like 
feathers, or, in some cases, an upright tuft of curiously bushy plumes. The general 
plumage is compact, in striking contrast to that of herons; but the inner remiges, 
in most cases, are enlarged and flowing. In some species, the sternum is enlarged 
and hollowed to receive a fold of the windpipe, as in swans. Bill equalling or 
exceeding the head in length, straight, rather slender but strong, compressed, con- 
tracted opposite the nostrils, obtusely pointed ; nasal fossz short, broad, shallow ; 
nostrils near the middle of the bill; large, broadly open and completely pervious ; 


GRUIDZ, CRANES.—GEN. 223. ARAMIDH, COURLAN.—GEN. 239. 271 


tibiz naked for a great distance; tarsi scutellate in front ; toes short, webbed at 
base; hallux very short, highly elevated. About 14 species of various parts of 
the world ; only 2 of them American. Most of them fall in the genus Grus; the 
elegant “‘ demoiselle” cranes of the Old World, Anthropoides virgo and paradise, 
and the African Balearica pavonina, are the principal exceptions. 


223. Genus GRUS Linneus. 


White or Whooping Crane. Adult with the bare part of the head 
extending in a point on the occiput above, on each side below the eyes, and 
very hairy. Biil very stout, gonys convex, ascending, that part of the 
under mandible as deep as the upper opposite it. Adult plumage pure white, 
with black primaries, primary coverts and alula; bill dusky greenish; legs 
black ; head carmine, the hair-like feathers blackish. Young with the head 
feathered; general plumage gray? varied with brown. Length about 
50 inches; wing 24; tail 9; tarsus 12; middle toe 5; bill 6. Temperate 
N. Am., but apparently of irregular distribution, not well made out;.said 
to be common in the South Atlantic and Gulf States. Wuzs., viii, 20, pl. 
64, f. 3: Nourr., ii, 34; Aup., v, 188, pl. 313; Bp., 654. . AMERICANUS. 

Brown or Sandhill Crane. Adult with the bare part of the head forking 
behind to receive a pointed extension of the occipital feathers, not reaching 
on the sides below the eyes, and sparsely hairy. Bill moderately stout, with 
nearly straight and scarcely ascending gonys, that part of the under mandible 
not so deep as the upper at the same place. Adult plumage plumbeous-gray, 
never whitening ; primaries, their coverts, and alula, blackish. Young with 
head feathered, and plumage varied with rusty brown. Rather smaller than 
the last. Temperate N. Am., rare or irregular in the east, very abundant 
in the south and west. Numr., ii, 88; Aup., v, 188 (in part), pl. 314; 
Bo., 655. Also, G. fraterculus Cass. in Bp., 656 (young). CANADENSIS. 


Family ARAMIDA. Courlan. 


Consisting of a single genus, with probably only one species, of the warmer 
portions of America; closely allied to the rails in all essential points of structure, 
and perhaps only forming a subfamily of Rallide. Bill twice as long as the head, 
slender but strong, compressed, grooved for about half its length, contracted 
opposite the nostrils, the terminal portion enlarged, and decurved; nostrils long, 
linear, pervious; head completely feathered to the bill; tibie half bare; tarsus 
scutellate anteriorly, as long as the bill; toes cleft, the hinder elevated; wings 
short, rounded, with falcate 1st primary ; tail short, of 12 broad feathers. 


, 239. Genus ARAMUS Vieillot. ; 

Scolopaceous Courlan. Orying-bird. Chocolate-brown with a slight oliva- 
ceous or other gloss, paler on the face, chin and throat, most of the plumage 
sharply streaked with white; 24-28 long; wing 12-14; tail 6-7; bill and 
tarsus, each, about 5. Florida. Bonav., Am. Orn. iv, 111, pl. 26; Nurr., 
HN, 63; Aup., v, 181, pl. 312; Bp., 657. . scOLOPACEUS var. GIGANTEUS. 


272 RALLIDZ, RAILS, ETO. 


Family RALLIDA, Rails, etc. 


This is a large and important family, abundantly represented in most parts of 
the world. They are birds of medium and small size, generally with compressed 
body and large strong legs (the muscularity of the thighs is very noticeable), 
enabling them to run rapidly and thread with ease the mazes of the reedy marshes 
to which they are almost exclusively confined; while by means of their very long 
toes they are prevented from sinking in the mire or the floating vegetation. The 
wings are never long and pointed as among Limicolw, being in fact of the shortest, 
most rounded and concave form found among waders; and the flight is rarely 
protracted to any great distance. The tail is always very short, generally of 10 or 
12 soft feathers. Details of the bill and feet vary with the genera; but the former 
is never sensitive at the tip, and the latter have the hallux longer and lower down 
than it is in the shore-birds. The nostrils are pervious, of variable shape. The 
head is completely feathered; the general plumage is ordinarily of subdued and 
blended coloration, lacking much of the variegation commonly observed in shore- 
birds ; the sexes are usually alike, and the changes of plumage not great with age 
or season. ‘The food, never probed for in the mud, but gathered from the surface 
of the ground or water, consists of a variety of aquatic animal and vegetable 
substances. The nest is a rude structure, placed on the ground, or in a tuft of reeds 
or other herbage; the eggs are numerous, generally variegated in color; the young ~ 
are hatched clothed. The general habit is gregarious, and migratory ; many species 
occur in vast multitudes, though their skulking ways, and the nature of their 
resorts, withdraw them from casual observation. Some species swim habitually. 

There appear to be upward of 150 species of the family, falling in several well 
marked groups. The Ocydromine are an Old World type of some 35 species, 
ranking with some authors as a distinct family. Mr. Gray makes the African 
Himantornis hematopus the type and single representative of another subfamily. 
Excluding the Parride and Heliornithide (see p. 241), both of which are sometimes 
brought under Rallide, as subfamilies, the three remaining groups are represented 
in this country. 


Subfamily RALIINA. Rails. 


This is the largest, and central or typical, group, to which most of the foregoing 
paragraph is especially applicable. The species are strictly paludicole; the 
compression of the body is at a maximum; the form is blunt and thick behind, 
with a very short tip-up tail, and tapers to a point in front; the whole figure being 
thus adapted to wedge through narrow places. The wings are extremely short and 
rounded, and the ordinary flight appears feeble and vacillating, though the migra- 
tions of many species are very extensive. The flank-feathers are commonly 
enlarged and conspicuously colored; the thighs are very muscular; the tibize are 
generally if not always naked below; the toes are long, completely cleft, without 
lobes or any obvious marginal membranes. The bill occurs under two principal 
modifications: in Rallus proper it is longer than the head, slender, compressed, 
slightly curved, long-grooved, with linear nostrils; in most genera, however, it is 
shorter or not longer than the head, straight, rather stout, with short broad nasal 
fossee, and linear-oblong nostrils—altogether somewhat as in gallinaceous birds. 
The culmen more or less obviously parts antial extension of the frontal feathers, 
but never forms a frontal shield, as in the coots and gallinules. Of the 35 


RALLIDZ, RAILS, ETC.—GEN. 240, 241. 273 


American species (Sclater and Salvin) only 7 occur in this country, one of which is 
merely a straggler. There are some 25 Old World species. 


240. Genus RALLUS Linneus. 


Clapper Rail. Salt-water Marsh-hen. Mud-hen. Above, variegated with 
dark olive-brown and pale olive-ash, the latter edging the feathers; below, 
pale dull ochrey-brown, whitening on the throat, frequently ashy-shaded on 
the breast; flanks, 
axillars and lining 
of wings, fuscous- 
gray, with sharp 
white bars; quills 
and tail plain dark- 
brown; eyelids and 
short superciliary 
line whitish ; young 
birds are mostly 
soiled whitish be- 
low; when just 
from the a7 oF Fig: 178. Clapper Rail. 
tirely sooty black. 

14-16 long; wing 5-6; tail 2-23; bill 2-24; tarsus 18-2; middle toe and 
claw 2-24; 9 smaller than the g¢. Salt marshes of Atlantic States, 
extremely abundant southerly; N. regularly to middle districts, sometimes 
to Massachusetts; Great Salt Lake (Allen). Eggs 6 to 10, 13 by 1}, 
whitish, creamy or buff, variously speckled and blotched with reddish- 
brown, with a few obscure lavender marks. £2. crepitans Wu1s., vii, p. 112; 
Nort., ii, 201; Aup., v, 165, pl. 310; Cass. in Bp., 747. LONGIROSTRIS. 

King Rail. Fresh-water Marsh-hen. With a general resemblance to the 
last species, but much more brightly colored; above, brownish-black, 
variegated with olive-brown, becoming rich chestnut on the wing coverts ; 
under parts rich rufous or cinnamon-brown, usually paler on the middle of 
the belly, and whitening on the throat; flanks and axillars blackish, white- 
barred. Rather larger than the last. U.S., chiefly in fresh-water marshes. 
Wius., vii, pl. 62, f. 2; Aup., v, 160, pl. 309; Cass. in Bp., 746. ELEGANS. 

Virginia Rail. Coloration exactly as in elegans, of which it is a perfect 
miniature. Length 84-104; wing about 4; tail about 13; bill 14-13; 
tarsus 14-14; middle toe and claw 13-13. Temperate N. Am., common, 
migratory ; many winter in the S. states. Wus., vii, 109, pl. 62, f. 1; 
Norr., ii, 205; Aup., v, 174, pl. 311; Cass. in Bp., 748. . VIRGINIANUS. 


241. Genus PORZANA Vieillot. 
Carolina Rail. Common Rail. Sora. “ Ortolan.” Above, olive-brown, 
varied with black, with numerous sharp white streaks and specks; flanks, 
axillars and lining of wings, barred with white and blackish; belly whitish ; 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 35 


274 _ RALLID/, RAILS, ETC.— GEN. 242. 


crissum rufescent. Adult with the face and central line of throat black, the 
rest of the throat, line over eye, and especially the breast, more or less 
intensely slate-gray, the sides of the breast usually 
with some obsolete whitish barring and speckling ; 
young without this black, the throat whitish, the 
breast brown. Length 8-9; wing 4-44; tail about 
2; bill 3-2; tarsus 14; middle toe and claw 1%. 
Temperate N. Am., exceedingly abundant during 
—— ee the migration in the reedy swamps of the Atlantic 
FiG. 179. Carolina Rail. states. Wuts., vi, 27, pl. 48, f. 1; Nuwr., 15 200% 
Aup., v, 145, pl. 306; Cass. in Bd., 749. oon eee - . CAROLINA. 

Yellow Rail. Above, varied with acech and ee and thickly 
marked with narrow white semicircles and transverse bars; below, pale 
ochrey-brown, fading on the belly, deepest on the breast, where many 
feathers are dark-tipped; flanks dark with numerous white bars; crissum 
varied with black, white and rufous. Small, about 6 long; wing 34; tail 13; 
bill 4; tarsus $; middle toe and claw 14. Eastern N. Am., not abundant. 
Bonap., Am. Orn. iv, 136, pl. 27, f. 2; Sw. and Ricu., Fn. B.-A. ii, 402; 
Norr., ii, 215; Aup., v, 152, pl. 307; Cass. in Bp., 750. NOVEBORACENSIS. 

Black fail. Blackish; head and under parts dark slaty, paler or 
whitening on the throat; above, speckled with white, the cervix and upper 
back varied with dark chestnut; lower belly, crissum, flanks and axillars, 
white-barred ; quills with white spots. Very small; about 53; wing 23-3; 
tail 14; tarsus ?. S. and Cent. Am. and West Indies; rarely observed in 
the U. S. Washington, D. C., (Cowes and Prentiss) ; Kansas, (Allen). 
Aup., v, 157, pl. 308; Cass.in Bp., 749. . . . . . . JAMAICMNOIE. 


242. Genus CREX Bechstein. 


Corn Crake. Yellowish-brown, varied with black; below, cinereous- 
whitish, palest on the throat and belly ; wings extensively rufous both above 
and below; flanks and crissum barred with the same; 10-11; wing 53-6; 
tail 2; bill 1; tarsus 18. Europe; Greenland; accidentally on the Atlantic 
Coast, U. S. Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1855, 265 (New Jersey), and in 
Bo., 751;. Bargp, Am. Journ. Sci. 1866, xli, 25. . . . ”. “PRARENere: 


Subfamily GALLINULINA. Gallinules. 


Forehead shielded by a broad, bare, horny plate, a prolongation and expansion 
of the culmen. Bill otherwise much as in the shorter-billed rails, like Porzana; 
general form much the same, though the body is not so compressed; toes slender, 
simple or slightly margined. The two following genera differ considerably, and 
each becomes the type of a subfamily with those who elevate the gallinules to the 
rank of a family ; but this does not seem to be required. In Gallinula, the nostrils 
are linear, and the toes have an evident marginal membrane. Porphyrio (not “ Por- 
phyrula”) has broadly oval nostrils and no obvious digital membranes; the legs 
are notably longer, with shorter toes; the bill is thicker, etc. There are about 
thirty species of gallinules, of various parts of the world. | 


RALLIDZ, RAILS, ETC.—GEN. 243, 244, 245. 275 


243. Genus GALLINULA Brisson. 

Florida Gallinule. ead, neck and under parts, grayish-black, darkest 
on the former, paler or whitening on the belly ; back brownish-olive; wings 
and tail dusky; crissum, edge of wing, and stripes on the flanks, white ; 
bill, frontal plate, and ring round tibie, red, the former tipped with yellow ; 
tarsi and toes greenish. 12-15 long; wing 63-73; tail 3-34; gape of bill 
about 13; tarsus about 2. S. Atlantic and Gulf states, N. sometimes to 
Massachusetts. Bonap., Am. Orn. iv, 128, pl. 27, f. 1; Nurr., ii, 223; 
Aup., v, 132, pl. 304; Cass. in Bp., 752. . (CHLOROPUS var?) GALEATA. 


244. Genus PORPHYRIO Temminck. 


Purple.Gallinule. ead, neck and under parts beautiful purplish-blue, 
blackening on the belly, the crissum white; above, olivaceous-green, the 
cervix and wing coverts tinted with blue; frontal shield blue; bill red, 
tipped with yellow; legs yellowish. Young with the head, neck and lower 
back brownish, the under parts mostly white, mixed with ochrey. 10-12; 
wing 63-7; tail 24-3; bill from gape about 14; tarsus about 24; middle 
toe and claw about 3. S. Atlantic and Gulf States, N. casually to New 
England (Maine, Boarpman, Am. Nat. iii, 498). Wus., ix, 69, pl. 73; 
f. 2; Nomr., ii, 221; Aup., v, 128, pl. 303; Cass. in Bp., 753. MaRTINICA. 


Subfamily FULICINA. Coots. 


Bill and frontal plate much as in the gallinules; body 
depressed, the under plumage thick and duck-like, to resist 
water; feet highly natatorial; tarsus shorter than middle {{% 
toe ; toes, including the hinder, lobate, being furnished with ! 
large semicircular membranous flaps. The coots are emi- 
nently aquatic birds, swimming with ease, by means of their 
lobate feet, like phalaropes and grebes. There are about 
ten species, of both hemispheres, all referable to the 


245. Genus FULICA Linneus. 


Coot. Dark slate, paler or grayish below, black- 
ening on the head and neck, tinged with olive on the 
back ; crissum, whole edge of wing and tips of second- | 
aries, white; bill white or flesh color, marked with rig. 190. Frontal plate of a 
reddish-black near the end; feet dull olivaceous; ep ocies oh Get, 
young similar, paler and duller. About 14; wing 7-8; tail 2; bill from 
the gape 14-14; tarsus about 2; middle toe and claw about 3. Temperate 
N. Am., abundant. Wus., ix, 61, pl. 73, f.1; Nurr., ii, 229; Aup., v, 
138, 305; Cass. in Bp., 751. an 6. ie - e e ee e | AMERIDEOAN AY 


276 NATATORES, SWIMMING BIRDS. 


Subclass III, AVES AQUATICA, or NATATORES. 


AQUATIC BIRDS. SWIMMERS. 


Tus, the third and last series, containing all remaining carinate birds of the 
present geologic epoch, is a group that may readily be defined upon the principles 
of adaptive modification already explained under head of Aves Terrestres; 
although as in the cases of the other two “subclasses,” it does not rest upon 
characters of much morphological significance. The birds composing it are - 
aquatic in a strict sense, fitted to progress upon or through the water, and to derive 
the greater part of their sustenance from the same source; many of them are 
absolutely independent of land, except for the purpose of reproduction. Manifest 
indications to be fulfilled in adaptation to an aquatic mode of life, are such a con- 
figuration of the body as will enable the bird to rest upright on the water, boat- 
like; and such conformation of the legs as will render them a pair of paddles 
rather than simple pillars of support, together with water proof clothing of the 
body. Accordingly, all swimming birds have a more or less broad and depressed 
shape, especially flattened underneath. The coat of feathers is compact and 
impervious to water, either by its close imbrication, or its thickening with broad 
tracts and abundant down-feathers, or its plentiful lubrication with oil from the well- 
developed gland on the rump; in general, these three circumstances conspire to the 
single result. The modifications of the legs are especially interesting. In general, 
these limbs are transformed into oars by means of webs stretching from tip to tip 
of the front toes, and sometimes also from the inner toe to the hallux. This com- 
plete palmation is so nearly universal that it alone would characterize the Swim- 
mers, were it not that in one family the same result is effected by means of broad 
lobes instead of plain webs, and for the fact that a very few genera of waders are 
more or less completely palmiped. Since these broad webs would interfere in 
passing each other were the legs as close together and as parallel as they are in 
higher birds, another feature is introduced. The limbs are widely separated, in 
swimming, not only by the unusual width of the body, but by an outward obliquity 
of the members themselves ; divergence begins at the hip-joint in the direction of 
the axis of the femur, and increases thence to the terminal segments. Greater 
power being required to push the body through the water than is needed to simply 
support it, first on one leg and then on the other, as in ordinary walking, the femur 


is shortened to become rather a fulcrum for advantageous application of power, 


PHENICOPTERIDH, FLAMINGOES. 277 


than a lever for increase of motion. This shortening is generally so marked that 
the knee is entirely withdrawn within the general skin of the body—a special 
characteristic of swimming birds; and in the best swimmers, the whole limb is thus 
buried almost to the heel-joint. Finally, the natatorial limb becomes a rudder as 
well as an oar, serving to steer the bird’s course through the water, as much as the 
tail guides flight through the air. This is accomplished by the backward set of the 
legs—they project so far posteriorly, in many cases, that in standing on land, the 
birds necessarily assume a nearly upright position. The wings, tail and bill differ 
according to families, as noticed under the several heads, beyond, while the more 
important points of the osseous and digestive systems are similarly diversified. 

The Natatorial plan is primarily carried out in four different ways, affording as 
many orders. All of these, and all their families excepting one, are represented 


within our limits. The missing family is that of the Spheniscide, or penguins. 


Order LAMELLIROSTRES. Anserine Birds. 


Bill lameliate: that is, both mandibles furnished along their tomial edges with 
series of laminar or teeth-like projections, alternating and fitting within each other. 
Covering of bill membranous, wholly or in greatest part. Tongue fleshy, usually 
with horny tip, and serrate or papillate edges corresponding to the denticulations 
of the bill. Feet palmate; hallux elevated, free, simple or lobed (rarely absent). 
Wings never exceedingly long, rarely very short. ‘Tail generally short and 
many-feathered. Csophagus narrower than in the lower flesh-eating orders, 
usually with a more or less specially formed crop; gizzard strongly muscular ; 
intestines and their cceca long; cloaca capacious. Legs near centre of equilibrium ; 
position of body in walking horizontal or nearly so. Reproduction precocial. 
Sexual habit frequently polygamous. Diet various, commonly rather vegetarian 
than animal. There are two remarkably diverse families of lamellirostral birds. 


Family PHGZNICOPTERIDA:. Flamingoes. 


Bill very large and thick, entirely invested with membrane (without the horny 
terminal nail of the Anatidw) which extends around the eyes, and abruptly bent 
downward at the middle. Legs and neck exceedingly long. Tibie largely bare 
below ; tarsus broadly scutellate, much longer than the toes. Front toes completely 
webbed; hallux very small, or wanting. Wings moderately long, ample. 

This is a small but very peculiar group of about six species, inhabiting various 
warm parts of the world. The external characters are so nicely balanced between 
those of wading and swimming birds, that the flamingoes have been placed indiffer- 
ently in both groups; but nearly the whole organization corresponds essentially 
with that of the duck tribe, the grallatorial relationship, in form and habits, though 
so evident, being rather of analogy than of affinity. In length of legs and neck 
these birds exhibit even an exaggeration of the characters of cranes, storks and 
herons. The bill is unique in shape; its abrupt bend brings the upper surface 
in contact with the ground in the act of feeding. The nest is a heap of earth 


278 ANATIDH, GEESE, DUCKS, ETC.—GEN. 246. 


and other material, which the birds bestride in an ungainly attitude ; but it is not 
high enough to permit their long legs to dangle, as represented in some popular 
accounts and pictorial efforts. The young are said, on good authority, to take to 
the water as soon as hatched. 


246. Genus PHC@NICOPTERUS lLinneus. 


American Flamingo. Adult plumage scarlet; most of the quill feathers 
black; legs lake-red; bill orange-yellow, black-tipped. Length about 4 
feet; wing 16 inches; tail 6; bill 5; tarsus 12; middle toe and claw 34. 
Florida and Gulf coast; N. casually to S. Carolina (Audubon). Wus., 
viii, 45, pl. 66; Nurt., ii, 70; Aup., vi, 169, pl. 375; Bp., 687. RUBER. 


Family ANATIDA. Geese, Ducks, etc. 


Bill lamellate, stout, more or less elevated and compressed at base, widened or 
flattened at tip, invested with soft, tough, leathery membrane, except at the end, 
which is furnished with a hard, horny ‘ nail,” generally somewhat overhanging, 
sometimes small and distinct, sometimes large and fused; that is, changing insen- 
sibly into the general covering. (This soft covering is regarded by some as a 
prolonged cere; but this is purely theoretical.) Body full, heavy, flattened beneath ; 
neck of variable length; head large; eyes small. No antiz, the frontal feathers 
encroaching on the culmen with a convex or pointed out- 
line, and forming other projections on the sides of the bill, 
and in the interramal space, which latter is broad and long, 
the mandibular crura being united only at the end by a broad 
short bridge; no culminal ridge nor keel of gonys. Nostrils 
subbasal, median or subterminal, usually broadly oval. 
Wings of moderate length (rarely very short), stiff, strong, 
pointed, conferring rapid, vigorous, whistling flight; a wild duck at full speed is 
said to make ninety miles an hour. Tail of variable shape, but’ usually short and 
rounded, never forked, sometimes cuneate, of 12-24 feathers, usually 14-16, the 
under coverts very long and full, forming a conspicuous crissal tuft. Feet short ; 
knees buried in the general integument; tibiae feathered nearly or quite to the 
suffrago; tarsi reticulate or scutellate, or both; toes palmate, the hinder always 
present and free, simple or lobate. Wing occasionally spurred. 

Like the gallinaceous, the anserine type is a familiar one, comprising all kinds 
of ‘‘ water-fowl,” among which are the originals of all our domestic breeds of swans, 
geese and ducks, that vie with poultry in point of economic consequence, ornament 
our parks, or furnish exquisite material for wearing apparel. But additional infor- 
mation respecting the structure of this, the largest and most important family of 
swimming birds, may be desirable. It is definitely characterized by many impor- 
tant points besides those external features just stated. In palatal structure, the 
Anatide are desmognathous ; ‘‘the lachrymal region of the skull is remarkably long 
[the lachrymal bone itself is large]. The basisphenoidal nostrum has oval sessile 
basipterygoid facets. The flat and lamellar maxillo-palatines unite and form a 
bridge across the palate. The angle of the mandible is produced and greatly 
recurved” (Hualey). The interorbital septum is more or less completely ossified, 
and the orbits are better defined than in many birds, by well developed processes. 
The premaxillary is large, and its three prongs are so extensively fused that only a 


ANATIDZ, GEESE, DUCKS, ETC. 299 


slight nasal aperture remains. Sometimes the top of the skull shows crescentic 
depressions for lodgment of the supraorbital gland, the secretion of which lubricates 
the nasal passages; but this feature is never so marked as in most of the pisciv- 
orous swimmers. The sternum is both long and broad, more or less transverse 
posteriorly, with a simple notch or fenestra on each side; sometimes its keel is 
curiously hollowed out for a purpose stated beyond. The vertebra vary a good 
deal in number, owing to the variability of the cervicals, which run up to 23 in some 
swans. The pelvis is ample, arched and extensively ossified, with small foramina, 
showing nothing of the straight, constricted, largely fenestrated figure prevalent 
among lower water-birds. 

The tongue is large and fleshy; its main bone (glosso-hyal) is highly developed ; 
its sides show a fringe of processes corresponding to the lamellz of the bill. The 
gullet is not so ample as in the flesh-eating swimmers. The gizzard resembles that 
of a fowl in its shape and great muscularity ; the muscles are deep-colored, and well 
show the typical disposition of large hemispherical lateral masses converging to 
central tendons. The cceca vary with the genera according to food; they are very 
long—12 or 15 inches—in some of the herbivorous species. The male genital 
armature merits special notice. ‘‘In some Natatores which copulate on the water 
there is provision for more efficient coitus than by simple contact of everted cloace ; 
and in the Anatide a long penis is developed. It is essentially a saccular produc- 
tion of a highly vascular part of the lining membrane of the cloaca. * * * In 
the passive state it is coiled up like a screw by the elasticity of associated 
ligamentous structure. * * * A groove commencing widely at the base follows 
the spiral turns of the sac to its termination; the sperm ducts open upon papille 
at the base of this groove. This form of penis has a muscle by which it can be 
eyerted, protruded and raised.” (QOwen.) Among the most interesting structures 
of the Anatide are the curious modifications of the windpipe, prevailing almost 
throughout the family. In a number of swans, this organ enters a cavity in the 
keel of the sternum, doubles on itself and then emerges to pass to the lungs, forming 
either a horizontal or a vertical coil. In some geese the windpipe coils between the 
pectoral muscles and the skin. These vagaries of the windpipe are not, however, 
confined to the present family, occurring in some of the cranes, certain Galline, 
and also, it is said, in the curious snipe, Rhynchea capensis. In most of the ducks, 
furthermore, and in the mergansers, the lower larynx is a singularly enlarged and 
complicated affair ; several of the lower rings of the trachea being soldered together 
and greatly magnified to produce a large irregularly shaped capsule. Its use is 
not known; in some sense it is a sexual character, since it is only fully developed 
in the male; it varies greatly in size and shape in different species. Finally, it 
should be added, that the pterylosis of the family is perfectly definite, a certain type 
of tract-formation prevailing throughout, with very slight minor modifications. 

It is not easy to overrate the economic importance of this large family. It is 
true that the mergansers, some of the sea ducks, and certain maritime geese, that 
feed chiefly upon animal substances, are scarcely fit for food; but the great majority 
afford a bounteous supply of sapid meat, a chief dependence, indeed, with the 
population of some inhospitable regions. Such is the case, for example, in the 
boreal parts of this continent, whither vast bands of water-fowl resort to breed 
during the fleeting arctic summer. Their coming marks a season of comparative 
plenty in places where hunger often pinches the belly, and their warm downy 
covering is patched into garments almost cold-proof. 

The general traits of the anserine birds are too well known to require more than 


280 ANATIDZ, SWANS. 


passing notice. They.are salacious to a degree remarkable even in the hot-blooded, 
passionate class of birds; a circumstance rendering the production of hybrids 
frequent, and favoring the study of this subject. If we recall the peculiar actions 
of geese nipping herbage, and of ducks ‘‘dabbling” in the water, and know that 
some species, as the mergansers, pursue fish and other live prey under water, we 
have the principal modes of feeding. WNidification is usually on the ground; 
sometimes in a hollow tree; the nest is often warmly lined with live feathers; 
the eggs are usually of some plain pale color, as greenish or creamy; the clutch 
varies in number, commonly ranging from half a dozen to a dozen and a half, 
The young are clothed with stiffish down, and swim at once. Among the ducks 
and mergansers, marked sexual diversity in color is the rule; the reverse is the 
case with swans and geese. A noteworthy coloration of many species, especially 
of ducks, is the speculum; a brightly colored, generally iridescent, area on the 
secondary quills. Most of the species are migratory, particularly those of the 
northern hemisphere; the flight is performed in bands, that seem to preserve 
discipline as well as companionship; and with such regularity, that no birds are 
better entitled to the claim of weather-prophets. 

There are upward of 175 species of this family, inhabiting all parts of the world. 
They differ a good deal in minor details, and represent a number of peculiar genera 
aside from the ordinary types, though none are so aberrant as to endanger the 
integrity of the group. It is difficult to establish divisions higher than generic, 
because the swans, geese and ducks, if not also the mergansers, are closely united 
by intermediate genera. But the five groups presented as subfamilies in the 
following pages, and representing the whole of the family, may be conveniently 
recognized, and are readily distinguished, so far as our species are concerned, 
by the characters assigned. 


Subfamily CYGNIN. Swans. 


A strip of bare skin between the eye and bill; tarsi reticulate. In the swans, the 
neck is of extreme length and flexibility ; the movements and attitudes on the water 
are proverbially elegant and graceful. The bill equals or exceeds the head in length ; 
it is high and compressed at base (where sometimes tuberculate), flatter and 
widened at the end; the nostrils are median. Some of the inner remiges are 
usually enlarged, and when elevated in a peculiar position of the wing, they act as 
sails to help the course of the bird over the water. The legs are placed rather far 
back for this family, so that the gait is awkward and constrained. The tail is short, 
of 20 or more feathers. Although the voice is sonorous at times, an habitual 
reticence of swans contrasts strongly with the noisy gabbling of geese and ducks ; 
it is hardly necessary to add, that their fancied musical ability, either in health or 
at the approach of death, is not confirmed by examination of their vocal apparatus ; 
this is in many cases convoluted as already described, but there are no syringeal 
muscles nor other apparatus for modulating the voice. There are eight or ten 
species, of various countries, among them the celebrated black swan of Australia, 
Chenopsis atratus, the black-necked swan of South America, Cygnus nigricollis ; 
and the Coscoroba anatoides of the same country, a species with feathered lores; in 
none of these does the trachea enter the breast-bone. Our two species belong to 
the subgenus Olor, distinguished from Cygnus proper by absence of a tubercle 
at the base of the bill. The sexes are alike throughout the group. 


ANATIDE, SWANS.—GEN. 247. ZOOL 


247. Genus CYGNUS Linnezus. 
*.* Adult plumage entirely white; younger, the head and neck washed with 
rusty brown; still younger, gray or ashy. Bill and feet black. Length 4-5 feet. 
Trumpeter Swan. Tail (normally) of 24 feathers. No yellow spot on 
bill, which is rather longer than the head, the nostrils fairly in its basal half. 
Mississippi Valley, westward and northward; Canada (C. passmorei 
Hincss). Sw. and Ricu., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 464; Nurr., ii, 370; Avp., 
wae G2, 0005 BD., 758. . . .- . - = « «+ + BUCCINATOR. 


Fig. 182. American Swan. 


Whistling Swan. Tail (normally) of 20 feathers. A yellow spot on bill, . 
which is not longer than the head; nostrils median. N.Am. C. bewickii 
Sw., Fn. Bor.-Am., 465; C. ferus Nutt., ii, 366; C. bewickii Nurv., ii, 
372; C. americanus AUD., vi, 226, pl. 384; Bp., 758. . . AMERICANUS. 


Subfamily ANSERIN 4. Geese. 


Lores completely feathered; tarsi entirely reticulate. Neck in length between 
that of swans and of ducks; cervical vertebrae about 16; body elevated and not so 
much flattened as in the ducks; legs relatively longer; tarsus generally exceeding, 
or at least not shorter than, the middle toe; bill generally rather short, high and 
compressed at base, and tapering to tip, which is less widened and flattened than is 
usual among ducks, and almost wholly occupied by the broad nail. The species 
as a rule are more terrestrial, and walk better, than ducks; they are generally 
herbivorous, although several maritime species (gen. 249, and an allied South 
American group) are animal-feeders, and their flesh is rank. Both sexes attend to 
the young. A notable trait, shared by the swans, is their mode of resenting 
intrusion by hissing with outstretched neck, and striking with the wings. With 
some exceptions the plumage is not so bright and variegated as that of ducks, and 
the speculum is wanting; there is only an annual moult, and no seasonal change of 
plumage; the sexes are generally alike. Most of the geese fall in or very near 
gen. 248 and 250, and are modelled in the likeness of the domestic breeds. The 
more notable exotic. forms are:—the Australian Anseranas melanoleuca and 
Cereopsis nove-hollandie, the former having the feet little more than semipalmate, 
the latter scarcely aquatic, with very long legs, much bare above the suffrago, and the 
bill small, very membranous ; the African Plectropterus gambensis, a purplish-black 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 36 


282 ; ANATIDEH, GEESE.—GEN. 248. 


bird with spurs on the wings and a tubercle at the base of the bill; the Asiatic 
Cynopsis cygnoides, frequently domesticated, a true goose with a swan-like aspect ; 
the Egyptian goose, Chenalopea cegyptiaca. The geese appear to pass directly into 
the ducks through the rather large shieldrake group, the species of which resemble 
the latter in many external features, but are more essentially like geese. Charac- 
teristic examples of this group are the European Tadorna vulpanser and Casarca 
rutila; there are several others in the southern hemisphere; our long-legged 
arboricole genus Dendrocygna belongs in the immediate vicinity, while the domes- 
ticated musk duck, Cairina moschata, is not far removed. Through such forms 
as these we are brought directly among the ducks proper. ~ 


248. Genus ANSER Linneus. 


*,* Bill and feet light or bright colored; plumage white, or much variegated. 

American White-fronted Goose. Bill smooth; the laminze moderately 
exposed ; tail normally of 16 feathers. Under parts white or gray, exten- 
sively blotched with black ; back dark gray, with paler or brownish edgings 
of the feathers ; upper tail coverts white ; head and neck grayish-brown, the 
forehead conspicuously pure white (in the adult; dark in some states) ; bill 
pale lake ; feet orange, with pale claws. About 27 long; wing 16-18; tail 
5-6; tarsus 22-3; middle toe and claw about the same. North America; 
only differs from the European in an average longer bill (13-2, instead of 
13-13). Sw. and Ricu., Fn. B.-A. ii, 466; Nurt., ii, 346; Aup., vi, 209, 
. pl. 380; Bp., 761; A. frontalis Bo., 762 (young). ALBIFRONS var. GAMBELII. 

? Blue Goose. With nearly the size, and exactly the form, of the next 
species, but the plumage ashy, varied with dark brown, the head, upper 
neck, tail coverts and most of the under parts white, the wing coverts silvery- 
ash. Questionably the young of the snow goose. WHKzs., viii, 89, pl. 69, f. 
5; Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1856, 12; Ex. pl. 43. . . CRULESCENS. 

Snow Goose. Bill smooth; the lamin very prominent, owing to arching 
of the edges of the bill. Adult plumage pure white, but in most specimens 
the head washed with rusty-red; primaries broadly black-tipped; bill 
lake-red with white nail; feet the same, with dark claws. “Young, dull 
bluish or pale lead colored on the head and upper parts of the body” ( Cassin). 
Length about 30; wing 17-19; tail 53-63; bill 25; tarsus 34. North 
America; U.S. in winter; extremely abundant in the West, much less so 
in the East. Wus., viii, 76, pl. 68, f.5; Sw. and Ricu., Fn. B.-A. ii, 
467; Nutt., ii, 344; Aup., vi, 212, pl.381; Bp.,760. . HYPERBOREUS. 

Var. ALBATUS. Lesser Snow Goose. Smaller; ‘length about 25 inches; wing 
153; tail 52; bill 2; tarsus 3.” Western N. Am. Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 
1856, 41; 1861, 73; Bp., 760, 925; Exxioz, pl. 42. 

Foss’ Goose. Bill studded at the base with numerous elevated papille. 
Color white, with black-tipped quills, exactly as in the snow goose, but less 
than 24 long; wing 14-15; tail 5; bill 13; tarsus 24. Arctic regions (U. S. 
in winter?). “Horned Wavey” of Hearne, Journ. 442; A. rossii Bp. ; Cass., 
Proc. Phila. Acad. 1861, 73; Hxanthemops rossii Exutiot, pl. 44. ROSSII. 


ANATIDE, GEESE.—GEN. 249, 250. 283 


_ 249. Genus PHILACTE Bannister. 


Painted Goose. Emperor Goose. Wavy bluish-gray, with lavender or 
lilac tinting, and sharp black crescentic marks; head, nape and tail white, 
former often washed with amber-yellow; throat black, white-speckled ; 
quills varied with black and white ; 25-28; wing 15-17; tail 5-6; bill 14; 
tarsus 3. N.W. coast; abundant at mouth of Yukon. Chloephaga canayica. 
Bp., 768; Exu., pl. 45; Dauu., Trans. Chicago Acad. i, 296; Philacte 
@anageca HANN., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1870, 131. . . . . . CANaGica. 


Fic. 183. Emperor Goose. 


250. Genus BRANTA Scopoli. 
* .* Bill and feet black; head and neck black, with white spaces. 


Barnacle Goose. Blackish; tail coverts, sides of rump, forehead, sides 
of head, and throat, white; interscapulars and wing coverts bluish-gray ; 
under parts plumbeous-white ; 28; wing 17; tarsus 232; bill 14. Europe; 
very rare or merely casual in N. Am. 
Bp., Am. Nat. ii, 49 (Hudson’s Bay) ; 
Lawe., ibid. y, 10 (North Carolina). 
Nort., ii, 355; Aup., vi, 200, pl. 378 ; 
ethers . 2+. +. LEUCOPSIS. 

Brant Goose. Head, neck, body 
anteriorly, quills and tail, black; a 
small patch of white streaks on the 
middle of the neck, and usually white 
touches on the under eyelid and chin; b 
upper tail coverts white ; back brown- Fic. 184. a, Brant Goose; b, var-£nigricans. 
ish-gray ; under parts the same, but paler, and fading into white on the lower 
belly and crissum; black of jugulum well defined against the color of the 


284 ANATIDE, GEESE.—GEN. 251. 


breast ; 2 feet long; wing 13; tail 5; bill 14; tarsus 24. Hudson’s Bay ; 
Arctic and Atlantic (and Pacific?) Coast, S. in winter to Carolina or further ; 
common. WILS., viii, 131, pl. 72, f.1; Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 469; 
Nourrt., ii, 359; Avup., vi, 203, pl. 379;.Bp., 767. . . . . —BERumome 

Var. niericans. Black Brant. Similar; black of jugulum extending over most 
of the under parts, gradually fading behind ; white neck patches usually larger and 
meeting in front. Both coasts; very abundant on the Pacific; not common on the 
Atlantic. Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. 1846, 171; 
Cass., Ill. 52, pl. 10; Bo., 767. fl 

Canada Goose. Common Wild Goose. 
Tail normally 18-feathered. Grayish-brown, 
below paler or whitish-gray, bleaching on 
the crissum, all the feathers with lighter 
edges; head and neck black, with a broad 
white patch on the throat mounting each side 
of the head; tail black, with white upper 
coverts. About 36; wing 18-20; tail 64-73; 
bill 13-2; tarsus usually over 3. N. Am., 
abundant; U.S. chiefly in winter, but also 
occasionally in summer, breeding sparingly. 
Wits., viii, 52, pl. 67, f. 4; Sw. and Rion., Fn. B.-A. ii, 468; Norn, 
ii, 349; Avp., vi, 178, pl. 376; Bp., 764.°. . ... . .° OANaipieenen 


Fig. 185. a, Canada Goose; b, var. leuco- 
pareia. 


Var. LeucopaREIA. Black of neck bounded below by a white jugular collar ; 
under parts rather darker than is usual in the Canada goose, well defined against 
the white of the jugulum and crissum. Size of the last; tail feathers 18. Cass., 
Til. 272, pl. 45; Bp., 765. B. occidentalis Bo., 766 (in text). 

Var. purcuinsiI. Tail usually 16-feathered. Colors exactly as in the Canada 
goose, but size less. About 23 feet long; wing 15-17; tail 5-6; bill 14-12; 
tarsus rather under 38. N. Am., but chiefly northern and western. Sw. and Ricu., 
F. B.-A., ii, 470; Norr., ii, 362; Aup., vi, 198, pl. 377; Bp., 766. 


251. Genus DENDROCYGNA Swainson. 

* .* Duck-like arboricole geese, with the bill longer than the head, terminated by _ 

a prominent nail, the legs very long with the tibize extensively denuded below, the 
hind toe lengthened, more than one-third as long as the tarsus. In addition to the 
following species, a third, D. arborea, of the West Indies, may occur in the South. 
Fulvous Tree Duck. Pale cinnamon or yellowish-brown, darker on the 
crown, the nape with a black line, the bend of the wing chocolate-brown ; 
rest of the wing, rump and tail, black, its upper and under coverts white ; 
scapulars and fore back dark with pale cinnamon edgings; bill and feet 
blackish; 20; wing 93; tail 34; bill 13; tarsus 24. S. and Cent. Am. and 
Mexico; Southwestern U. S., not common. Fort Tejon, Cal. (Xantus), 
Bp., 770; Fort Whipple, Ariz., Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 98; Gal- 
veston, Tex. (Dresser; breeding) ; New Orleans, La. (Moore). . FULVA. 
Autumnal Tree Duck. Blackish, including a nuchal stripe; crown, most 
of neck and fore breast, middle of back and scapulars, reddish-chocolate ; 


ANATIDE, DUCKS.—GEN. 252. 285 


a large white wing-patch; bill and legs reddish. Size of the last. South 
and Central America and Mexico, to Texas (Schott). Lawr., Ann. Lyc. 
eee fide bps (70, 8. Sk wt els se AU TOMNABIB. 


Subfamily ANATINA. River Ducks. 


Tarsi scutellate in front; hind toe simple. This expression separates the present 
group from all the North American examples of the foregoing and succeeding sub- 
families, although not a perfect diagnosis. The neck and legs are shorter than 
they average in geese, while the feet are smaller than in the sea-ducks, the toes and 
their webs not being so highly developed. None of the Anatine are extensively 
maritime, like most of the Fuliguline ; yet they are not by any means confined to 
fresh waters, and some species constantly associate with the sea-ducks. They feed 
extensively, like most geese, upon succulent aquatic herbage, but also upon various 
animal substances; their flesh is, almost without exception, excellent. They do 
not dive for their food. The moult is double; the sexes are almost invariably 
markedly distinct in color; the young resemble the 9 ; the wing has usually a 
brilliant speculum, which, like the other wing-markings, is the same in both sexes. 
Unlike geese, these and other ducks are not doubly monogamous, but simply so if 
not polygamous ; the male pays no attention to the young. Excluding the shield- 
' rake group, already mentioned as pertaining rather to the geese than the ducks, 
there are about fifty species, generally distributed over the world. They are split 
into a large number of modern genera, most of which indicate little more than 
specific characters; the majority are represented in this country. Of those here 
following, only two, Spatula and Aix, represent any decided structural peculiarity ; 
the rest might all be referred to Anas, type of the group. The Malacorhynchus 
membranaceus, of Australia, is a notable exotic form. 


252. Genus ANAS Linnezus. 


Mallard. &% with the head and upper neck glossy green, succeeded by a 
white ring; breast purplish-chestnut; tail feathers mostly whitish; greater 
wing coverts tipped with black and white, the speculum violet, black- 
bordered ; bill greenish-yellow ; feet orange-red; @ with the wing as in the 
$ ; head, neck and under parts pale ochrey, speckled and streaked with 
dusky. Length about 24; wing 10-12. N. Am., abundant; rare or casual 
in New England and further eastward. Wus., viii, 112, pl. 70, f. 7; Nurr., 
Reafe.eath., vi, 200, pl. 385; Bp., 774. . . . . . . . BOSCHAS. 

Oss. This is the well-known original of the common tame duck. An anoma- 
lous duck, with the general aspect of this species, but nearly as large as a goose, 
is occasionally taken on the Atlantic coast. It is unquestionably part mallard, but 
the balance of its parentage is unknown—supposed to be muscovy. (A. maxima 
Gosse, Birds of Jamaica, 399; Fuligula viola Beri, Ann. Lye. N. Y. 1852, 219.) 
A. glocitans or A. breweri of Avup., vi, 252, pl. 387 (A. audubonii of Bonar.) is 
supposed to be a hybrid between the mallard and gadwall. The mallard is known 
to cross with various other species. Upwards of fifty kinds of hybrid ducks are 
recorded; some of them have proved fertile, contrary to an assumed rule. 

Dusky Duck. Black Duck. Size of the mallard, and resembling the ¢ 
of that species, but darker and without decided white anywhere except under 


286 ANATID, DUCKS. — GEN. 253, “2942 255. 


the wings. Tail 16-18-feathered. Eastern’N. Am., abundant, especially 
in New England and eastward. Whuts., viii, 141, pl. 72, f. 5; Nurr., 
li, 392; Aup., vi, 244, pl. 386; Bp., 775. . 5 2 ©.) 


253. Genus DAFILA Leach. 


Pintail. Sprigtail. Tail cuneate, when fully developed the central 
feathers much projecting and nearly equalling the wing in length; much 
shorter and not so narrow in the ? and young; 4 to 9 inches long; wing 
11; total length.about 24. Bill black and blue, foet grayish-blue ; hol anil 

s= upper neck dark brown, with | 
green and purple gloss, sides 
of neck with a long white 
stripe; lower neck and 
under parts white, dorsal 
line of neck black, passing 
into the gray of the back, 
which, like ‘the sides, is 
vermiculated with black; 
speculum greenish-purple, 
anteriorly bordered by buff 
tips of the greater coverts, 
elsewhere by black and white; tertials and scapulars black and _ silvery ; 
g and young with the whole head and neck speckled or finely streaked with 
dark brown and grayish or yellowish-brown ; below, dusky-freckled ; above, 
blackish, all the feathers pale-edged ; only a trace of the speculum between 
the white or whitish tips of the greater coverts and secondaries. N. Am., 
abundant. Wdus., viii, 72, pl. 68, f. 3; NotT., ii, 386; Aup., yi, 200, 
390; Bo., 776. Anas caudacuta Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 44]. acura. 


. 


254. Genus CHAULELASMUS Gray. 


Gadwall. g with most of the plumage barred or half-ringed with black 
and white, or whitish; middle wing coverts chestnut, greater coverts black, 
speculum white; 9 known by these wing-marks; 19-22; wing 10-11; 
N. Am., common. Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A., ii, 440; Wiuts., viii, 220; 
pl. 71, f.1; Nurv., ii, 383; Aup., vi, 254, pl. 388; Bp., 782. sTREPERUS. 


Fic. 186. Female Pintail. 


255. Genus MARECA Stephens. 


*.* Bill shorter than head, grayish-blue like the feet; tail 14—16-feathered, 
pointed, but hardly or not half as long as the wing; top of head white or nearly 
so, plain or speckled, its sides, and the neck, more or less speckled; fore breast 
light brownish-red ; belly pure white; crissum abruptly black; middle and greater 
coverts white, latter black-tipped; speculum green, black-bordered ; 20-22; wing 
11; tail 5; tarsus 2; bill 13-14; @ known by the wing-markings. 

European Widgeon. WHead and neck reddish-brown, scarcely varied ; top 
of head creamy, or brownish-white, its sides with mere traces of green. 


ANATIDE, DUCKS.—GEN. 256-7. 287 


Europe; casually on the Atlantic coast, Greenland to Florida; California 
( Cooper). Grraup, Birds Long Island, 307; Bp., 784. . . PENELOPE. 

American Widgeon. Baldpate. Head and neck grayish, dusky-speckled ; 
top of head white (in full plumage), its sides with a broad green patch. 
N. Am., abundant. Scarcely distinct from the last. Sw. and 
Rica., F. B.-A. ii, 445; Wits., viii, 86, pl. 69, f. 4; Nutt., 
ii, 389; Atp., vi, 259, pl. 389; Bp., 783 . . AMERICANA. 


256-7. Genus QUERQUEDULA Stephens. 


* Suberested ; head and upper neck chestnut, with a broad glossy 
green band on each side, whitish-bordered, uniting and blackening on . ; 
the nape ; under parts white, the fore breast with circular black spots; fic. 187. Amer- 
upper parts and flanks closely waved with blackish and white; crissum °*" 48°". 
black, varied with white or creamy; speculum rich green, bordered in front with 
buffy tips of the greater coverts, behind with white tips of the secondaries; no 
blue on the wing; bill black; feet gray. @Q differs especially in the head mark- 
ings, but those of the wings are the same. Small; 14-15; wing 
71; tail 33; bill 1}; tarsus 14. (WNettion.) 

English Teal. No white crescent in front of the wing; long 
= scapulars black externally, creamy internally. Europe; acci- 
= dental on the Atlantic Coast. Cougs, Proc. Phil. Acad. 1861, 
DPOPMOEEGOr Ds hD.. (75. . 2. . » .°. % . ORECCA. 

Green-winged Teal. A conspicuous white crescent on the 

= side of the body just in front of the bend of the wing; scap- 

Fic. 188. Green- P t isis “f = 
winged Teal. ulars plain. N. Am., abundant. Whuts., viii, 101, pl. 70, 
f. 4; Norr., ii, 400; Aup., vi, 281, pl. 392; Bp., 777. . CAROLINENSIS. 

** W ing-coverts in both sexes sky-blue, the greater white-tipped ; speculum green, 
white-tipped ; axillars and most under wing coverts white; scapulars striped with 
tawny and blue (not in the 9) or dark green; fore back barred; rump and tail 
dark, plain; crissum dark or black; bill black; feet not dark. (Querquedula.) 


Blue-winged Teal. ead and neck of the ¢ blackish-plumbeous, darkest 
on the crown, usually with purplish iridescence ; a white crescent in front of 
the eye; under parts thickly dark-spotted ; 9 with head and neck altogether 
different ; under parts much paler and obscurely spotted ; but known by the 
wing-markings from any species except the next one. 15-16; wing 7; tail 
3; tarsus 14; bill 13-12. Eastern N. Am. to the Rocky Mountains, abun- 
dant; also, Alaska (Dall). Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 444; Wuzs., viii, 
74, pl. 68, f.4; Norr., ii, 397; Aup., vi, 287, pl. 393; Bp., 779. D1scors. 

Cinnamon Teal. 2 with head, neck, and whole under parts, rich 
purplish-chestnut, darkening on crown, chin and crissum, and blackening on 
middle of belly ; rather larger than the last; bill longer, 13-12. with the 
chestnut replaced by mottled brown and tawny, and difficult to distinguish 
from Q discors; but darker, usuaily with some chestnut traces; head, and 
especially chin, more spotted; bill longer. A generally distributed S. Am. 
species, now abundant in the U. S. west of the Rocky Mountains ; of casual 
occurrence in the Gulf States (Louisiana, Pilaté; Florida, Maynard). 


288 ANATIDE, DUCKS.—GEN. 258, 259. 


Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1848, 195, and Ill. 82, pl. 25; Lawr., Ann. 
Lyc. N. Y. 1852, 220; Bo., 780, and Stansbury’s Rep. 322. cyANOPTERA. 


258. Genus SPATULA Boie. 


Shoveller. Broad-bill. Bill twice as wide at the end as at the base ; with 
very numerous aud prominent lamin. Head and neck of ¢ green; fore 
breast white; belly purplish-chestnut ; wing coverts blue; speculum green, 
bordered with black and white ; some scapulars blue, others green, all white- 
striped; bill blackish; feet red. 9 
known by bill and wings. 20; wing 
94; tarsus 14; bill 24-22. N. Am., 
abundant. Wus., viii, 65, pl. 67, f. 
7; Nurt., ti, 375; AUD evi 
pl. 394; Bp., 781. . . ‘CLxemamas 


259. Genus AIX Swainson. 


Summer Duck. Wood Duck. 
Crested; head iridescent green and 
purple, with parallel curved, white 
superciliary and postocular stripes, 
z and a broad, forked, white throat 

Fic. 189. Summer Duck. patch ; 18-20 ; wing 83-94 ; tail 
44-5; tarsus 14-14; bill 14; ¢@ with the head mostly gray. N. Am., 
abundant, breeding in most sections, nesting in trees. WIULs., villi, 97, pl. 
70, f.3; Nurt., ii, 394; Aup., vi, 271, pl. 391; Bp., 783.) spe ere 


Subfamily FULIGULINA!. Sea Ducks. 


Tarsi scutellate in front; hind toe lobate. The large membranous flap depending 
from the hind toe distinguishes this group from the preceding, probably without 
exception. While the general form is the same as that of the Anatine, the feet are 
notably larger, with relative shorter tarsi, longer toes, and broader webs, and placed 
somewhat further back, in consequence of which the gait is still more awkward and 
constrained than the “‘ waddle” of ordinary ducks; but swimming powers are 
enhanced, and diving is facilitated. A large number of the species are exclusively 
maritime, but this is no more the case with all of them, than is the reverse with the 
river ducks. These birds feed more upon mollusks and other animal substances 
(not, however, upon fish, like the mergansers) than the river ducks do, and their 
flesh, as a rule, is coarser, if not entirely too rank to be eaten; there are, however, 
single exceptions to this, as in the case of the canvas-back. The sexes are unlike, 
as among the Anatine ; and besides the difference in color, the Q is often distin- 
guished by the absence or slight development of certain tuberosities of the bill that 
the ¢ of several species, as of scoters and eiders, possesses. A large majority of 
the species inhabit the Northern Hemisphere ; there are some forty in all, exhibiting 
a good deal of diversity in minor details, but to no such extent as the number of 
current genera would imply. Among notable exotics, we have the soft-billed 
Hymenolemus malacorhynchus of New Zealand, and the short-winged Micropterus 


ANATIDZ, DUCKS.—GEN. 260-1. 289 


cinereus of South America, both related to our gen. 264; there are but very few 
others. The genus Hrismatura is the type of a small remarkable group, as noticed 
beyond, sometimes considered as a subfamily. Biziwra lobata of Australia, 
with a fleshy appendage under the bill, the African Thalassornis leuconota, the 
Nesonetta aucklandica, and several species of Hrismatura, compose the subgroup. 


260-1. Genus FULIGULA Stephens. 


* % with the head, neck, and body anteriorly, black, the former glossy ; lower 
back, rump, tail and its coverts, blackish; below, white, with fine black waving on 
the sides and lower belly; 92 with the head and anterior parts brown, with or 
without pure white around the bill, and other black parts of the ¢ rather brown ; 
& @Q bill black and blue, or dusky; feet livid. (Puliz.) 

Greater Scaup Duck. Big Black-head. Blue-bill. Raft Duck. Flock- 
ing Fowl. Shuffier. No ring round neck; speculum white; back and sides 
‘whitish, finely waved in zigzag with black; gloss of head green; bill dull 
blue with black nail; legs plumbeous; ¢ with the face pure white, the 

‘ black-and-white vermiculation less distinct. About 20 long; wing 9. N. 
Am. WILS., viii, 84, pl. 69, f. 3; Nurt., ii, 437 (includes next species) ; 
AUD., Vii, 355, pl. 498 (not of vi, 316); Bp., 791. . . . . MARILA. 

?Lesser Scaup Duck. Little Black-head (with other names of the fore- 

going). Extremely similar; smaller, about 16; wing 8; gloss of head 
chiefly purple; flanks and scapulars less closely waved with black? It is 
very difficult to define this bird specifically, and it may be simply a small 
southern form; but it appears to preserve its characters, although constantly 
associated with the last. /. marila Aup., vi, 316, pl. 397; F. minor 
GirauD, Birds of Long Island, 323; F. afinis Bp., 791. . . AFFINIS. 
Fting-necked Duck. An orange-brown ring round the neck; speculum 
gray; back nearly uniform blackish; bill black, pale at base and near tip ; 
@ with head and neck brown, and no collar, but loral space and chin whitish, 
as is a ring round eye; bill plain dusky. In size between the foregoing. 
eee ts., vil, 60, pl. 67, f.5; Nurr., ii, 439; Avp., vi, 320,-pl. 
Soe. go. . =. COLLARIS. 
** % with the head and neck 
chestnut, pure or obscured, in the 
Q plain brown; body anteriorly, 
rump and tail coverts, black, in the 
9 dark brown ; back, scapulars and 
sides plumbeous-white, finely waved 
with black, less distinct in the 9 ; 
speculum bluish-ash. Length about 
20; wing 9-10; tarsus 12-13. 


(Aythya.) 
Red-head. Pochard. Bill 
dull blue with a black belt at IG, 10; Cahyaerbaek, 


the end, broad and depressed, shorter than head (2 or less), the nostrils 
within its basal half; color of head rich pure chestnut, with bronzy or red 
KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 37 


290 ANATIDZ, DUCKS.—GEN. 262. 


reflections ; of back, mixed silvery-gray and black in about equal amount, the 
dark waved lines unbroken. N.Am., abundant. W1zs., viii, 110, pl. 70, f. 6; 
Nutt., ii, 434; Aup., vi, 311, pl. 396; Bp., 793. FERINA var. AMERICANA. 

Canvas-back. Bill blackish, high at the base and narrow throughout, not 
shorter than head (24, or more), the nostrils at its middle; head much 
obscured with dusky ; black waved lines of the back sparse and much broken 
up into dots, the whitish thus predominating. N. Am., especially abundant 
along the middle Atlantic Coast in winter, where from feeding on the wild 
celery ( Vallisneria) its flesh acquires a peculiar flavor, though not particularly 
excellent under other circumstances. WHus., viii, 103, pl. 70, f. 5; Nurr., 
ii, 430; Avup., vii, 299, pl. 395; Bo. 794. . . . . «. (VARA 


262. Genus BUCEPHALA Baird. ; 

*,.* @ with the head puffy, dark colored, iridescent, with large white patches ; 
lower neck all around, under parts, including sides, most of the scapulars, wing 
coverts and secondaries, white ; lining of wings and axillars dark; most of upper 
parts black; no waving on back and sides. 9 with the head less puffy, brown or 
dark gray, with traces of the white patches, or not; somewhat less white on the 
wings ; fore breast and sides with gray, the feathers paler-edged. Bill much shorter 
than head, very high at the base, tapering, with median nostrils. 

Golden-eye. Garrot. & with the head and upper neck glossy dark green, 
and a white oval or rounded loral spot, not touching the base of the bill 
throughout ; white continuous on outer surface of wing; bill black with pale 
or yellow end, with nostrils in anterior half; feet orange ; webs dusky ; eyes 
yellow; head uniformly puffy; 9 with head snuffy-brown, and no white 
patch in front of the eye. Length 16-19; wing 8-9. N. Am., abundant. 
Our bird does not appear to differ in the least from the European. WIzs., 
vili, 62, pl. 67, f. 6; Nurr., ii, 441; Aup., vi, 362, pl. 406 (describes the 
next species as summer plumage); Bp., 796. . . . . . CLANGULA. 

Barrow’s Golden-eye. Rocky Mountain Garrot. Very similar; gloss of 
head purplish and violet; the loral spot larger, triangular or crescentic, 
applied against the whole side of the bill at base; white on surface of wing 
divided by a dark bar; rather larger than the last; 19-22; wing 9-10; 
occipital feathers lengthening into a slight crest; bill shorter; 9 probably 
not distinguishable with certainty from that of the foregoing, unless by the 
dark bar on the wing. Arctic America to the N. States in winter, not common. 
Also N. Europe. It is doubtfully distinct from the last, with which, however, 
I am not prepared to unite it. Sw.and Ricu., F. B.-A. 456, pl. 70; Nurr., 
ii, 444; Bp., 796; Exxiort, pl. 46, and Aun. Lyc. N. Y. 1862. . ISLANDICA. 

Buffle-headed Duck. Butter-ball. Spirit Duck. Dipper. § with the 
head particularly puffy, of varied rich iridescence, with a large white auric- 
ular patch confluent with its fellow on the nape; small; 14-16; wing 6-7; 
bill 1, with nostrils in basal half; 9 still smaller, an insignificant looking 
duck, with head scarcely puffy, dark gray, with traces of the white auricular 
patch. N. Am., abundant. Wuus., viii, 51, pl. 67, f. 2,3; Nurr., ii, 445; 
Aup., vi, 369, pl.408; Bp. 097. > oc 8G. pes oe 


ANATIDE, DUCKS. —GEN. 263, 264, 265, 266-8. — 291 


263. Genus HARELDA Leach. 


Long-tailed Duck.  South-southerly. Old-wife. Tail of 14 narrow 
pointed feathers, in the ¢ in summer the central ones very slender and much 
elongated, nearly or quite equalling the wing; nail of bill occupying the 
whole tip; seasonal changes remarkable. ¢ in summer with the back and 
the long narrowly lanceolate scapulars varied with reddish-brown, wanting 
in winter, when this color is exchanged for pearly-gray or white; general 
color blackish or very dark brown, below from the breast abruptly white ; 
no white on the wing; sides of head plumbeous-gray ; in winter the head, 
neck and body anteriorly, white, but the gray cheek-patch persistent, and a 
large dark patch below this ; bill at all seasons black, broadly orange-barred. 
g without lengthened scapulars or tail feathers, the bill dusky greenish, and 
otherwise different ; but recognized by presence of head- and neck-patches, 
and absence of white on the wing. Length 15-20, or more, according to 
tail; wing 8-9. N. Am., northerly, coastwise; U. S. only in winter; 
common. Also Northern Europe. WIts., viii, 93, pl. 70, f. 1, 2; Nurrt., 
eee. vi, a09, pl. 410; Bp., 800... . . . . . GLACIALIS. 


264. Genus CAMPTOLAIMUS Gray. 


Labrador, or Pied Duck. Bill enlarged towards end by membranous 
expansion, the nostrils in its basal third; cheek feathers rigid; g with the 
body and primaries black; rest of the wing, with neck and head, white, with 
a black collar and lengthwise coronal stripe; 9 plumbeous gray; about 2 
feet long; wing 9. N. Atlantic Coast, to middle districts in winter; 
formerly common, now apparently rare. WILS., viii, 91, pl. 69, f. 6; 
Norrt., ii, 428; Aup., vi, 329, pl. 400; Bp., 803. . . :. LABRADORIUS. 


265. Genus HISTRIONICUS Lesson. 


Harlequin Duck. Bill very small and short, rapidly tapering to tip, which ° 
is wholly occupied by the nail, and with a membranous lobe at its base; 
tertiaries curly ; plumage singularly patched with different colors; g deep 
leaden-bluish, browner below; sides of head, and of -body posteriorly, 
chestnut ; coronal stripe and tail black; a white patch at base of bill, 
another on side of occiput, of breast and of tail, two transverse ones on 
side of neck, forming a nearly complete ring, and several on the wings ; 
a white jugular collar; speculum violet and purple; 9? dark brown, paler 
below, whitening on belly; a white patch on auriculars and before eye. 
15-18; wing 8; Northwestern Europe; N. Am., northerly, and entirely 
coastwise, U. S. only in winter, not abundant. WIzsS., viii, 139, pl. 72, 
f. 4; Norr., ii, 448; Avup., vi, 374, pl. 409; Bp., 799. . . ToRQuaTUs. 


266-8. Genus SOMATERIA Leach. 
* Bill without frontal process, not feathered to the nostrils. (Polysticta.) 
Steller’s Hider. ead white, with a pearly gray tinge, a green occipital 


292 ANATIDE, DUCKS.—GEN. 266-8. 


band, and a black chin-patch and eye-ring; collar round neck, and upper 
parts, lustrous velvety black, the lengthened curly scapulars and tertiaries 
silvery-white on the inner webs, the lesser and middle wing coverts white, 
the greater coverts and secondaries white-tipped, enclosing the violet 
speculum; under parts rich reddish-brown, blackening on the belly and 
crissum, fading through buff to white on the breast and sides, where there 
are black spots. reddish-brown, blackening below, varied with darker on 
the head, neck and fore parts; tips of greater coverts and secondaries alone 
white, enclosing the speculum. Length about 18; wing 8. Northwest 
Coast. Nutr.,ii,451 ; 
AUwD.,vi, 368, pl. 407 ; 
Bo., 801. STELLERII. 

** Bill without frontal 
processes, feathered to 
the nostrils. (Lampro- 
netta. ) 

Spectacled Hider. 
g black or blackish, 
the throat, most of 
neck, fore back, wing 
coverts, scapulars, ter- 
. tials and flank-patch, 
white ; nape and occi- 
put green; a whitish 
space round eye, 
bounded by black; @ 
said to be brown, varied with darker, the chin and throat whitish, the eye 
patch obscurely indicated ; after the summer moult the ¢ is said to be like 
the 9. Length about 2 feet. Northwest Coast, common about St. Michaels. 
Datu, Trans. Chicago Acad. i, 299; Exxior, pl. 47; Bp., 803. ¥FISCHERII. 

*** Bill with frontal processes, not feathered to the nostrils. (Somateria.) 


Fic. 191. Spectacled Eider. 


Eider Duck. Bill with long club-shaped processes extending in a line 
with the culmen upon the sides of the forehead, divided by a broad feathered 
interspace. ¢ in breeding attire white, creamy-tinted on breast and washed 
with green on head; under parts from the breast, lower back, rump, tail, 
quills, and large forked patch on the crown, black. 9 with the bill less 
developed, general plumage an extremely variable shade of reddish-brown or 
ochrey-brown, speckled, mottled and barred with darker; ¢ in certain stages 
resembling the ¢. Length about 2 feet; wing 11-12 inches. Arctic and 
N. Atlantic Coasts, abundant, S. in winter to New England commonly, to 
the Middle States rarely. This celebrated bird, semi-domesticated in some 
places, yields most of the prized eider-down of commerce, which the parent 
plucks from the breast to cover the eggs; eggs commonly 3-4, pale dull 
greenish. WHLS., viii, 122, pl. 71, f. 2, 3; Nurr., ii, 407; Aup., vi, 349, 
pl. 405; Bp., 809. The American bird has lately been separated from the 


— 


ANATIDZ, DUCKS.—GEN. 269. 293 


European under name of S. dresseri, by Mr. Sharpe, but I doubt the 
exclusive pertinence of the assigned characters. . . MOLLISSIMA (var?). 
Pacific Eider. Precisely like the last, excepting a V-shaped black mark 
on the chin; may require to be treated as merely a variety. Arctic and 
North Pacific coast, com- ——— = : 
mon. Bp., 810; Exzior, = 
pe4s. . .) . V-NIGRA. Be Se = 
King Eider. Bill with = 7 
broad squarish nearly ver- -7 , ; 
tical frontal processes bulg- 
ing angularly out of line 
with culmen. ¢ in breed- 
ing attire black, including if 
a forked chin-patch, a‘: 
frontal band, and smal 
space round eye; the neck |_ 
and fore parts of the body, 
part of interscapulars, of 
wing coverts and of lining» 
of wings, and a flank patch 
white, creamy on the jug 
-ulum, greenish on sides of 
head ; crown and nape fine = 
bluish-ash. 9? resenbli).g SSS : 
that of the common eider, Fic. 192. Eider Ducks. Upper fig., ¢; lower fig., 9. 
but bill different. Size of the last, or rather less. Both coasts, arctic 
and northerly; S. in winter sometimes to New York. Nutt., ii, 414; 
fets eto pl. 404: Bp. 810... . . =. . +. +. SPECTABILIS. 


269. Genus G@DEMIA Fleming. 


*,* Embracing the black sea-ducks, surf-ducks, scoters or “coots” as they are 
variously called: maritime mollusk-eating species, scarcely fit for food; ¢ black, 
relieved or not by definite white patches on head or wings, or both, with brightly 
parti-colored bill, very broad at the end, singularly gibbous at base, but of different 
form in each of the following species, unnecessarily causing their separation into 
the three genera, mentioned below; 9 sooty-brown, etc., bill simply turgid at base, 
much widened at end; but may be known by having the nostrils at the middle of 
the bill or beyond it, the nail broad, fused, occupying all the tip, the frontal feathers 
reaching further on culmen than on sides of upper mandible, and forming no 
reéntrance at its back upper corner; young ¢ resembling the 9. Our three 
species inhabit both coasts, and sometimes the larger inland waters, breeding 
northward ; they occur abundantly in winter along the whole length of the U. S. 


American Black Scoter. Bill scarcely encroached upon by the frontal 
feathers, shorter than the head, black, the gibbosity superior, circumscribed, 
orange ( 2); nostrils at its middle ; tail normally 16-feathered. ( @demia.) 
Plumage of ¢ entirely black. 9 sooty-brown, paler below, becoming 


294 ANATIDEH, DUCKS. —GEN. 269. 


grayish-white on the belly, there dusky-speckled, on the sides and flanks 
dusky-waved ; throat and sides of head mostly continuous whitish; bill all 
black; feet livid olivaceous, with black webs. ¢ nearly 2 feet long; 
wing about 10 inches: 9 18-19 inches; wing 8-9; gape 2; culmen 13. 
Differs from the European in the shape and coloration of the protuberance 
on the bill. Wruts., 
vill, 135; ple 72.0 
2; Norris my ze 
and 423; Avwp., vi, 
343, pl. 403; Bo., 
807. . AMERICANA. 

Velvet Scoter. 
White-winged Surf- 
duck. Bill broadly 
encroached upon by 


—— the frontal feathers, 
Fic. 193. Female Black Scoter, with outline of bill viewed from below. on the culmen nearly 


or quite to the nostrils, and on its sides to a less extent, shorter than head, ~ 
black, broadly orange-tipped (g); nail broad and truncate; gibbosity 
superior, circumscribed. (Melanetta.) g black, with a large white wing- 
patch, and another under the eye; feet orange-red, with dusky webs. Size 
of the last, or rather larger; @ smaller, sooty-brown, pale grayish below, 
with much whitish about head, but showing white speculum; bill all black. 
Said to differ from the European by greater encroachment of feathers on bill, 
but the ascribed feature is not tangible. Whuts., viii, 137, pl. 72, f. 3; 
Nutt, ii, 419; Avp., vi, 332, pl. 401; IZ. velvetina Bp., 805. Also, Fuls- 
gula bimaculata Hervert, Field Sports, ii, 2d ed. 366; O. bimaculata Bp., 
808 (tmmature). . . « = = «© «sys « «© % % 6 9 
Surf Duck. Sea Coot. Bill narrowly encroached upon by the frontal 

feathers, on the culmen nearly or quite to the uostrils, but not at all upon 
its sides, about as 
long as head, with 
the nail narrowed 
anteriorly, the 
swelling lateral as 
well as superior ; 
nostrils beyond its 
middle; bill of g 
orange-red, whitish 
on the sides, with a 
large circular black 
spot on each side at 
the base; tail nor- 
mally 14-feathered. Fic. 194. Young male Surf Duck, with outline of bill viewed from below. 
(Pelionetta.) g black, with a triangular white patch on the forehead and 
another on the nape; no white on wings; feet orange, with dusky webs. 


ANATIDE, DUCKS. —GEN. 270. 


Size of the first; gape of bill about 24; 9 smaller; bill bla 
gape about 24; feathers of culmen hardly or not reaching nostrils} 
dark, tinged with dusky-reddish ; webs black; plumage sooty-brown, below 
silvery-gray, sides of head with much whitish, chiefly in two patches, one 
loral, the other auricular. Wrts., viii, 49, - 675. fe Nore.) i, 416 ; 
Aup., vi, 337, pl. 402; Bp., 806... . . - +. PERSPICILLATA. 

Var. TRowBRIDGEI. With the bill longer, exceeding the head, and of slightly 
different shape; feathers falling short of nostrils; gape about 22; white frontal 
patch small, its posterior border anterior to a line between the eyes, instead of 
reaching or passing beyond this. Cala. Bp., 806; Exxior, Introd. B. A., No. 64. 


270. Genus ERISMATURA Bonaparte. 

*.* Remarkably distinguished from other Fuligulince by the stiffened, linear- 
lanceolate tail feathers (16—20 in number) exposed to the base, by reason of extreme 
shortness of the coyerts; bill broad, flattened, the nail large, overhanging. 

Ruddy Duck. The ¢ in perfect plumage with the neck all round and the 
upper parts brownish-red, the lower parts silky silvery-white watered with 
dusky, the chin and sides of the head dead-white, the crown and nape black ; 
but not often seen in this condition in the U. S. As generally observed, and 
the 9 at all times, brown above finely dotted and waved with dusky, paler 
and duller below with darker undulations and sometimes a slight tawny 
tinge, as also occurs on the sides of the head; crown and nape dark brown; 
bill dusky; crissum always white. Length 14-17; wing 5-6; tarsus 14. 
N. Am., abundant. Wruts., viii, 128, 130, pl. 71, f..5, 6; Nurr., ii, 426; 
Miievindss, pl.ovg; Bp.,8ll. . . . oe J BUBIDA, 

St. Domingo Duck. ¢$ lead anteriorly amd hia eee hind-head, neck 
and breast deep ferrugineous; above brownish-red, blotched with black ; 
below lighter ferrugineous; speculum white. 9 similar, but less strongly 
marked. 134; wing 64; tail 32; bill 1$, smaller and less expanded than 
in the preceding. S. Am. and W. Indies, accidental in U.S. The only 
known instances are Lake Champlain (Cazor, Proc. B. S. N. H., vi, 375) ; 
Wisconsin (Kumuein; ibid. xiv, 154; Am. Nat. v, 441). 2. dominica 
Bo, 925; L£. ortygoides Goss, Birds of Jamaica, 405. . . DOMINICA. 


Subfamily MERGIN 42. Mergansers. 


Bill more or less nearly cylindrical, the nail hooked and overhanging, the 
lamellz highly developed into prominent retrorse serrations. Excepting these 
characters of the bill, the fishing-ducks are simply Fuliguline, somewhat modified in 
adaptation to a more exclusively animal regimen; the principal point in their 
economy is ability to pursue fish under water, like cormorants, loons and other 
birds of lower orders. The nature of their food renders their flesh rank and 
unpalatable. The gizzard is rather less muscular than in most ducks; the intes- 
tines and their ceca are shorter; the laryngeal capsule of the males is very large, 
irregular, and partly membranous; the trachea has other dilations. Birds of this 
group inhabit fresh as well as salt water, and are abundant in individuals if not in 
species. There are only about eight species, chiefly of the Northern Hemisphere ; 
but several occur in South America. 


296 ANATIDE, MERGANSERS. —GEN. 271-2. 


Ozs. The smew, or white nun, Mergellus albellus, of Europe, has been attributed 


to N. Am. upon insufficient evidence, though very possibly occurring. W11s., Vili, 


126, pl. 71, f. 4; Nurt., li, 467; Avp., vi, 408, pl. 414; Bo., 817. 


271-2. Genus MERGUS Linnezus. 
* Bill not shorter than head, mostly red. (Mergus.) 


Merganser. Goosander. Fish Duck. Nostrils nearly median; frontal 
feathers reaching beyond those on sides of bill; g¢ with the head scarcely 
crested, glossy green; back and wings black and white, latter crossed by 
one black bar; under parts salmon-colored ; about 24; wing 11; 9 smaller; 
occipital crest better developed, but still flimsy ; head and neck reddish- 
brown; black parts of the g ashy-gray ; less white on the wing; under parts 
less tinted with salmon. N.Am., common. WI1.5., viii, 68, pl. 68, f. 1, 2; 
Nurr., ii, 460; Aup., vi, 387, pl. 411; 1. americanus Bp., 813. MERGANSER. 
a Led-breasted Mer- 

ganser. Fish Duck. 
= Nostrils sub-basal ; 
frontal feathers not 
+ reaching beyond those 
on sides of bill; along 
thin pointed crest in 
both sexes. Smaller 
j than the last; wing 

8-9; general color- 
ation, and sexual differences, the same, but the g with the jugulum rich 
reddish-brown, black-streaked, the sides conspicuously finely waved with 
black, a white, black-bordered mark in front of the wing, and the wing 
crossed by two black bars. N.Am., abundant. Whuts., viii, 91, pl. 69, f. 
2; Nurrt., ii, 463; Aup., vi, 395, pl. 412; Bp., 814. .” 7 seeaoee 

** Bill shorter than head, mostly or entirely black. (Lophodytes.) 

Hooded Merganser. Nostrils sub-basal; frontal feathers reaching beyond 
those on sides of bill; a compact, erect, semicircular, laterally compressed 
crest in the g, smaller and less rounded in the 9; ¢ black, including two 
crescents in front of wing, and bar across speculum; under parts, centre of 
crest, speculum, and stripes on tertials, white; sides chestnut, black-barred ; 
18-19; wing 8; @ smaller; head and neck brown; chin whitish; back and 
sides dark brown, the feathers with paler edges ; white on the wing less; bill 
reddish at base below. N.Am., common. WHULS., viii, 79, pl. 69, f. 1; 
Nutt., ii, 465; Aup., vi, 402, pl. 418; Bp., 816. . . . ‘GUG@DmaziinmE 


Fic. 195. Red-breasted Merganser, with outline of bill from above. 


Order STEGANOPODES. Totipalmate Birds. 


Feet totipalmate, with three full webs; hind toe semi-lateral, larger and lower 
down than in other water birds, connected with the inner toe by a complete web 
reaching from tip to tip. Nostrils minute, rudimentary or entirely abortive. A 
gular pouch. Bill not membranous nor lamellate, but tomia sometimes serrate. 


STEGANOPODES, TOTIPALMATE BIRDS. 297 


This is a definite and perfectly natural group, which will be immediately recog- 
nized by the foregoing characters, one of which, the complete webbing of the 
hallux, is not elsewhere observed among birds. It is represented by six genera, 
all North. American, each the type of a family. 

The nature is altricial throughout the order. The eggs are very few, frequently 
only one, usually if not always plain-colored, and encrusted with a peculiar white 
chalky substance ; they are deposited in a rude bulky nest on the ground, on rocky 
ledges, or on low trees and bushes in the vicinity of water. The dietetic regimen 
is exclusively carnivorous, the food being chiefly fish, 
sometimes pursued under water, sometimes plunged 
after, sometimes scooped up. In accordance with this, 
we find the alimentary canal to consist of a capacious 
distenstble cesophagus not developing a special crop, 
a large proventriculus with numerous solvent glands, a 
small and very moderately muscular gizzard, rather 
long and slender intestines, with small cceca, if any, 
and an ample globular cloaca. The tongue is extremely 
small, a mere knob-like rudiment (as we have seen in 
the piscivorous kingfishers). The characteristic gular 
pouch varies greatly in development. The condition of 
the external nostrils is a curious and unexplained feature ; they appear to be open at 
first, and in some species, like the tropic-bird, they remain so; but they are gener- 
ally completely obliterated in the adult state. There are probably no intrinsic 
syringeal muscles in any birds of this order. But the most notable fact in connec- 
tion with the respiratory system is the extraordinary pneumaticity of the body, 
which reaches its height in the pelicans and gannets; it is described by Nitzsch 
substantially as follows: The interior air receptacles are of an ordinary character, 
but the anterior of these cells are more subdivided than-usual; from them, the air 
gets under the skin through the axillary cavities, and diffuses over the entire 
pectoral and ventral regions, in two large parallel inter-communicating cells on 
each side, over which the skin does not fit close to the body, but hangs loosely. It 
is further remarkable that the skin itself does not form a wall of these cavities, a 
very delicate membrane being stretched from the inwardly projecting bases of the 
contour-feathers. Thus there is yet another, although a very shallow, interval 
between this membrane and the skin, this also containing air, admitted from the 
larger spaces by numerous minute orifices close to the roots of the feathers. This 
subcutaneous areolar tissue is that which, in ordinary birds and mammals, holds the 
deposit of fat, no trace of which substance is found in these birds. 

The pterylosis of Steganopodes adheres throughout to one marked type, there 
being little variation except in the density of the plumage, which would seem to 
accord with temperature, the tropical forms being the more sparsely feathered. 
Excepting one genus, the gular sac is wholly or in part bare. The contour 
feathers appear to always lack aftershafts. The remiges are from 26 to 40 in 
number, of which 10 are always long, strong, pointed primaries. There are 
usually 22-24 tail feathers in the pelicans, but 12, 14 or 16 in the other genera. 
All have the oil gland large, with a circlet of feathers and more than one orifice ; 
sometimes, as in the pelicans, it is protuberant, heart-shaped, and as large as 
- pigeons’ eggs, with two sets of six orifices; in the gannets it is flat and disc-like. 

The palatal structure is desmognathous; there are no basipterygoids; the 
maxillo-palatines are large and spongy; the mandibular angle is truncate; other 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 38 


Fic..1y6. Totipalmate Foot. 


298 SULIDH, GANNETS.—GEN. 273. 


cranial characters appear under two aspects, one peculiar to the pelicans, the other | 
common to the rest of the order. (HHuxiry.) The sternum is short and broad, 
with transverse, entire or emarginate, posterior border; the apex of the fureulum 
commonly, if not always, anchyloses with the sternal keel. The upper arm bones 
are very long; the tibia does not develop the long proximal apophysis seen in 
many Pygopodes. The carotids are double. 

The species of this order are few—apparently not over fifty, of which the 
cormorants represent half—very generally distributed over the world. 


Family SULIDA. Gannets. 


Bill rather longer than the head, cleft to beyond the eyes, very stout at the base, 
tapering and a little decurved toward the tip, which however is not hooked, the 
tomia irregularly serrate, or rather lacerate. Nostrils abortive. Gular sac little 
developed, but naked. Wings rather long, pointed. Tail long, stiff, wedge-shaped, 
12-14-feathered. Feet more nearly beneath centre of equilibrium than in some other 
families of this order. General configuration somewhat that of a goose; body 
stout ; neck rather long; head large, uncrested ; plumage compact. 

Gannets are large heavy sea-birds of various parts of the world. There are only 
five or six well established species, of which the two following, with the S. piscator 
of the Indian Ocean, and the Australian S. cyanops, are the principal ones. They 
are piscivorous, and feed by plunging on their prey from on high, when they are 
completely submerged for a few moments; but they do not appear to dive from the 
surface-of the water, like cormorants. The gait is firm; the flight vigorous and 
protracted, performed with alternate sailing and flapping. Although so heavy, they 
swim lightly, owing to the remarkable pneumaticity of the body, already noticed. 
They are highly gregarious; the common gannet congregates to breed in almost 
incredible numbers on rocky coasts and islands, of high latitudes, while the booby 
similarly assembles on the low shores of warmer seas. The nest is a rude bulky 
structure of sticks and seaweed, placed on the rock or in low thick bushes ; the egg, 
generally single, is plain in color and encrusted with calcareous matter. Both 
sexes appear to incubate; they are alike in color, the young being different. 


273. Genus SULA Brisson. 


Common Gannet. Solan Goose. White, with black primaries, the head 
washed with amber-yellow; bill not yellow; lores, sac and feet blackish. 
Young: dark brown speckled with white, below from the neck grayish-white, 
each feather darker-edged ; quills and tail blackish. Length about 31; extent 
60; wing 17-21; tail about 10; bill 4. Atlantic Coast; swarming in sum- 
mer at certain northern breeding places, S. to the Gulf of Mexico in winter. 
Noutr., ii, 495; Avp., vii, 44, pl. 425; Lawr. in Bp., 871. . BASSANA. 

Booby Gannet. Brown; below from the neck white ; bill and feet yellow. 
Young: grayish-brown, merely paler below; bill dusky. Rather smaller 
than the last. S. Atlantic and Gulf States, very abundant. Nurr., ii, 500; 
Aup., vii, 57, pl. 426; Laws. in Bp., $72.-. . . .. = 2) ane 


Family PELECANIDA. Pelicans. 


Bill several times as long as the head, comparatively slender but strong, straight, 
broad, flattened, ending with a distinct claw-like hook. Mandibular rami joining 


PELECANID®, PELICANS. 299 


only at their apex; the long broad interramal space, and the throat, occupied by an 
enormous membranous sac. Nostrils abortive. Wings extremely long, in the 
upper and fore-arm portions, as well as the pinion, with very numerous remiges. 
Tail very short, of 20 or more feathers. Feet short, very stout. Size large. 

The remarkable pneumaticity of the body (shared however by the gannets) has 
been already described. <A principal osteological character is, that ‘the inferior 
edge of the ossified interorbital septum rises rapidly forward, so as to leave a space 
at the base of the skull, which is filled by a triangular crest formed by the union of 
thé greatly developed ascending processes of the palatines” (Hualey). The tongue 
is a mere rudiment. But the most obvious peculiarity of these birds is the immense 
skinny bag hung to the bill, capable of holding several quarts when distended ; its 
structure is as follows: The covering is ordinary skin, but very thin; the lining is 
skin modified somewhat like mucous membrane; between these “is interposed an 
equally thin layer, composed of two sets of very slender muscular fibres, separated 
from each other, and running in opposite directions. The outer fibres run in 
fascicles from the lower and inner edge of the mandible, those from its base passing 
downward, those arising more anteriorly passing gradually more forward, and reach 
the middle line of the pouch. The inner fibres have the same origin, and pass in a 
contrary direction, backwards and downwards. From the hyoid bone to the 
junction of the two crura of the mandible, there extends a thin band of longitudinal 
muscular fibres, in the centre of which is a cord of elastic tissue. By means of 
this apparatus, the sac is contracted, so as to occupy but little space. When the 
bill is opened, the crura of the lower mandible separate from each other to a 
considerable extent [in their continuity —not at the symphysis], by the action of 
muscles inserted into their base, and the sac is expanded” (Audubon). This organ 
is used like a dip-net, to catch fish with; when it is filled, the bird closes and throws 
up the bill, contracts the 
pouch, letting the water 
run out of the corners of 
its mouth, and swallows 
the prey. Pelicans feed 
in two ways; most of 
them, like our white one, 
scoop up fish as they 
swim along on the water ; 
but the brown species 
plunges headlong into 
the water from on wing, 
like a gannet, and makes 
a grab, often remaining submerged for a few seconds. Neither species often catches 
large fish ; they prefer small fry of which several hundred may be required for a full 
meal. The prevalent impression that the pouch serves to convey live fish, swimming 
in water, to the little pelicans in the nest, is untrue; the young are fed with par- 
tially macerated fish disgorged by the parents from the crop. As Audubon remarks, 
it is doubtful whether a pelican could fly at all with its burden so out of trim. 

The gular pouch varies in size with the different species, reaching its greatest 
development in the brown pelican, where it extends half-way down the neck in front, 
is a foot deep when distended, and will hold a gallon. Besides this singular 
adjunct, the bill of our white pelican has another curious structure, not found in 
other species. The culmen is surmounted near the middle by a high thin upright 


Fic. 197. Bill and gular pouch of White Pelican. 


300 PELECANIDE, PELICANS.—GEN. 274. 


comb or crest, the use of which is not known. It is supposed to be a weapon of 
attack or defence in the combats that occur at the breeding season between rival 
males, being found only in this sex, and during the breeding season alone. It 
appears to be shed and renewed in a manner analogous to the casting of deer’s 
horns—a remarkable circumstance first noticed, I believe, by Mr. Ridgway. Its 
structure explains how this can be: ‘The crest-like excrescence on the ridge of 
the upper mandible is not formed of bone, nor otherwise connected with the osseous 
surface, which is smooth and continuous beneath it, than by being placed upon it, 
like any other part of the skin; and when softened by immersion in a liquid may 
be bent a little to either side. It is composed internally of erect slender plates of 
a fibrous texture, externally of horny fibres, which are erect on the sides, and 
longitudinal on the broadened ridge; these fibres being continuous with the cutis 
and cuticle” (Audubon). 

Pelicans are found in most temperate and tropical countries, both coastwise and 
inland; they are gregarious birds at all times, and gather in immense troops to 
breed. A large rude nest is prepared on the ground, or built of sticks in a low bush 
near the water; the eggs appear to be one to three, plain dull whitish, with a thick 
roughened shell. The gait of these cumbersome birds is awkward and constrained ; 
but their flight is easy, firm and protracted, and they swim lightly and gracefully, 
buoyed up by the interior air-sacs. The sexes are alike; the young different ; most 
species are white, with yellow or rosy hue at times, and a crest or lengthened 
feathers, at the breeding season; while nearly every one of them has a peculiar 
contour of the feathering at the base of the bill, by which it may be known. There 
are only six unquestionable species, although some authors admit eight or nine. 
The four exotic ones are: P. onocrotalus of Europe, Asia and Africa (including 
the P. minor and javanicus of authors), with the frontal feathers extending in a 
point on the culmen; P. crispus of the same countries, the largest of the genus, 
and P. rufescens (with philippinus) of various parts of the Old World, in both of 
which the frontal outline is concave on the base of the culmen; and, finally, the 
Australian P. conspicillatus, in which a strip of feathers cuts off the naked circum- 
ocular region from the base of the bill. This is an entirely peculiar feature; and 
our white pelican shows another, having the sides of the under mandible feathered 
at base for a short distance. Excellent accounts of the genus have been given by 
Dr. Sclater and Mr. Elliot (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1868, 264, and 1869, 571). 


274. Genus PELECANUS Linneus. 


American White Pelican. White; occiput and breast yellow; primaries, 
their coverts, bastard quills, and many secondaries, black; bill, sac, lores 
and feet yellow. About 5 feet long; expanse 7-9; wing 2; bill 1 or more; 
tail 4, normally 24-feathered. N.Am.; N. to 61°; very abundant in the 
west; only accidental in the Middle and Eastern States. Ricu. and Sw., 
F. B.-A., ii, 472; Nurr., ii, 471; Avp., vii, 20, pl. 422; Lawr. in Bp., 
868.- 8 oe Let a gt Re aeocse 

Brown Pelican. Dark-colored, variegated; neck of the adult mostly 
reddish-brown, head mostly white; bill dark, varied with red; sac blackish ; 
feet black; rather smaller than the last; tail normally 22-feathered. 
S. Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and California, abundant, strictly maritime. 
Norr., ii, 476; Avup., vii, 32, pls. 423, 424; Lawr. in Bp., 870. Fuscus. 


GRACULIDZ, CORMORANTS. 301 


Family GRACULIDZ. Cormorants. 


Bill about as long as head, stout or slender, more or less nearly terete, always 
strongly hooked at the end; tomia generally found irregularly jagged, but not 
truly serrate; a long, narrow, nasal groove, but nostrils obliterated in the adult 
state; gape reaching below the eyes, which are set in naked skin. Gular pouch 
small, but forming an evident naked space under the bill and on the throat, variously 
encroached upon by the feathers. Wings short for the order, stiff and strong, the 
2d primary usually longer than the 3d, both these exceeding the 1st. Tail rather 
long, large, more or less fan-shaped, of 12-14 very stiff, strong feathers, denuded to 
the base by extreme shortness of the coverts; thus almost ‘ scansorial” in struc- 
ture, recalling that of a woodpecker or creeper, and used in a similar way, asa 
support in standing, or an aid in scrambling over rocks and bushes. The body is 
compact and heavy, with a long neck; the general configuration, and especially the 
far backward set of the legs, is much like that of pygopodous birds. While other 
Steganopodes can stand with the body more or less nearly approaching a horizontal 
position, the cormorants are forced into a nearly upright posture, when the tail 
affords with the feet a tripod of support. They also, like the birds just mentioned, 
dive and swim under water in pursuit of their prey, using their wings for submarine 
progression, which is not the case with the other families, excepting Plotide. 

Among osteological characters, aside from the general figure of the skeleton, a 
long bony style in the nape, in the position of the ligumentum nuchee of many 
animals, and ossified with the occiput, is the most remarkable. It occurs in the 
anhinga also, but is there much smaller. The desmognathous structure is seen in its 
highest development; the palatines being not only soldered, but sending down a 
keel along their line of union; the interorbital septum is very defective, with 
horizontal inferior border (a general character of the order except in the pelicans). 
The pterylosis agrees essentially with the ordinal pterylographic characters, but 
the plumage is peculiar in certain details. Excepting a few speckled species, and 
some others that are largely white below, the plumage is glossy or lustrous black, 
often highly iridescent with green, purple and violet tints, commonly uniform on 
the head, neck and under parts, but on the back and wing coverts, where the 
feathers are sharp-edged and distinct, the shade is more apt to be coppery or 
bronzy, each feather with well defined darker border. This concerns, however, 
only the adult plumage, which is the same in both sexes; the young are plain 
brownish or blackish. The cormorants have other special featherings, generally of 
a temporary character, assumed at the breeding season and lost soon after; these 
are curious long filamentous feathers (considered by Nitzsch filoplumaceous), on the 
head and neck, and even, in some cases, on the upper and under parts too. These 
feathers are commonly white, as is also a large silky flank-patch acquired by several 
species. Many cormorants are also crested with ordinary long slender feathers ; 
the crest is often double, and when so, the two crests may be either one on each 
side of the head, or they may follow each other on the middle line of the hind head 
and nape. Our species illustrate all these various featherings. The naked parts 
about the head vary with the species and afford good characters, especially con- 
sidering the shape of the pouch, as noted by Mr. Lawrence and Prof. Schlegel; the 
skin is usually brightly colored, and sometimes carunculate. The eyes, as a rule, 
are green—a color not common among birds. 

Twenty-five species of cormorants may be considered established. Their study 


302 GRACULIDAH, CORMORANTS. —GEN. 275. 


is difficult, owing to the great changes in plumage, the high normal variability in _ 
size, and their close inter-relation, which is such that the single genus Graculus 
does not appear capable of well founded division. Species are found all over the 
world, excepting the uttermost polar regions, and are usually very abundant in 
individuals ; they are all very much alike in their habits. Many are maritime, but 
others range over fresh waters as well. They are eminently gregarious, especially 
in the breeding season, when they congregate by thousands—the boreal kinds 
generally on rock-begirt coasts and islands, those of warm countries in the dense 
fringes of shrubbery. They often migrate in large serried ranks. The nest is rude 
and bulky ; the eggs are commonly two, of elliptical form and pale greenish color, 
overlaid with a white, chalky substance. ‘They feed principally upon fish, and their 
voracity is proverbial, though probably no greater than in the cases of allied birds. 
Under some circumstances they have shown an intelligent docility ; witness their 
semi-domestication by the Chinese, who train them to fish for their masters, a close 
collar being slipped around the neck to prevent them from swallowing the booty. 


Fic. 198. Double-crested Cormorant. 


275. Genus GRACULUS Linneus. 

* Tail of 14 feathers (and gular sac heart-shaped behind). 

Common Cormorant. Shag. Glossy greenish-black, feathers of back 
and wing coverts bronzy-gray, black-edged ; quills and tail grayish-black ; 
gular sac yellow, white-bordered; feet black; in summer a white flank 
patch, numerous long thready white plumes on head and neck, and a small 
black occipital crest; length 36; wing 12-14; tail 6-7; tarsus over 2; bill 
4 along the gape. Atlantic Coast of Europe and North America; breeds in 
great numbers in Labrador and Newfoundland; S. to the Middle States in 
winter. Nutt., ii, 479; Aup., vi, 412, pl. 415; Lawr. in Bp., 876. CARBO. 

** Tail of 12 feathers. 

7+ Gular sac convex, or nearly straight-edged, behind. 

White-tufted Cormorant. Glossy greenish-black, the back and wing 
coverts with the feathers gray, black-edged ; lateral crests, of a superciliary 
bundle of long curly filamentous feathers, white. Size of the last. Alaska. 
I have never seen this bird, and do not know of any specimen in this 
country: description compiled from the original account. Branpt, Bull. 
Imp. Acad. St. Petersburg, iii, 55; Bonap., Consp. Av. ii, 168; SCHLEGEL, 
Mus. Pays-Bas, iv, 22; Lawre. in Bp., 877; Exxiot, pl. 51. CINCINNATUS. 


GRACULIDZ, CORMORANTS.—GEN. 275. 303 


Doutle-crested Cormorant. Glossy greenish-black ; feathers of the back 
and wings coppery-gray, black-shafted, black-edged ; adult with curly black 
lateral crests, and in the breeding season other filamentous white ones, over 
the eyes and along the sides of the neck; white flank-patch not observed in 
the specimens examined, but probably occurring ; gular sac and lores orange. 
Length 30-33 inches; wing 12 or more; tail 6 or more; bill along gape 
34; tarsus a little over 2. Young plain dark brown, paler or grayish 
(even white on the breast) below, without head-plumes. N. Am., at large, 
the commonest species. Sw. and Ricn., F. B.-A. ii, 473; Nurr., ii, 483; 
2up., vi, 220, pl. 416; Lawr. in Bp., 877. . . . . . +. DILOPHUS. 

,Var. FLormpAnus. Florida Cormorant. Similar, smaller (wing 12 or less; tail 
6 or,less ; tarsus a little under 2), but bill as large if not larger; gape nearly 4. 
The plumage is exactly the same, excepting, probably, that white plumes are not 
developed. There are said to be certain differences in the life-colors of the bills 
(blue instead of yellow on under mandible and edges of upper— Audubon), but 
none show in my specimens. ‘This is simply a localized southern race of dilophus, 
smaller in general dimensions, with relatively larger bill, as usual in such cases ; the 
sac seems to be more extensively denuded. Resident on the Floridan and Gulf 
coast, breeding by thousands on the mangrove bushes; in summer, ranging up the 
Mississippi valley to Ohio (Audubon) and along the coast to North Carolina (Coues). 
Avup., vi, 430, pl. 417; Lawr. in Bp., 879. _ 

Mexican Cormorant. Resembling the last; lustre more intense, rather 
violet-purplish than green; long filamentous white feathers on head and 
neck (but no definite black lateral crests?); sac orange, white-edged. 
Small; length about 24; wing about 10; tail 6, thus relatively long; tarsus 
under 2; gape of bill under 3. ‘The sac is not strongly convex in outline 
behind, the feathers passing across in a straight or even convex line. 
Central America and West Indies; Texas; up the Mississippi to Illinois 
(Ridgway). Branpr, l. c. 56; Lawre. in Bp., 879. . . . MEXICANUS. 


+7 Gular sac heart-shaped behind, owing to a narrow pointed forward extension 
of the feathers on the middle line. 


Brandt’s Cormorant. Deep lustrous green, changing to violet or steel-blue 
on the neck, the back proper like the under parts,.but the scapulars and wing 
coverts showing narrow dark edgings of the individual feathers (much less 
conspicuous than in any of the foregoing species : nothing of the sort is seen in 
any of the following ones). Sac dark blue, surrounded by a gorget of fawn- 
colored or mouse-brown plumage, largely naked, the feathers extending on it 
little if any in advance of those on the lower mandible. White filamentous 
plumes, 2 inches or more long, straight and stiffish, spring in a series down 
each side of the neck; a few others are irregularly scattered over the back 
of the neck; many others, still longer, grow on the upper part of the back. 
No black crests, nor white flank-patch, observed. Wing nearly 12; tail 
scarcely or not 6, thus relatively very short; bill along culmen 22; tarsus 24. 
Does not particularly resemble any other species here described. Young: 
blackish-brown, rustier below, the belly grayish ; scapulars and wing coverts 


304 GRACULIDH, CORMORANTS. —GEN. 275. 


with edges of the feathers paler than the centres; gorget fawn-colored, as in 
the adult (Phalacrocorax townsendii! Aup., vi, 438, pl. 418). Pacific 
Coast, U. S., common. Branpr, l. c. 55; GamBen, Journ. Phila. Acad. 
1849, 2273 Laws. in Bp. Sel. sae . .  PENIOILLATUS, 

Pallas’s Cormorant. Deep lustrous green, ee and below, with blue 
gloss on the neck, and rich purplish on the scapulars and wing coverts, the 
latter not edged; shafts of tail feathers (said to be) white; if this holds, it 
is a unique character among our species. Adult with coronal and occipital 
crests (not lateral paired crests) ; a white flank-patch in the breeding season ; 
face and neck with long sparse straw-yellow plumes; sac orange. Large; 
36; wing 13; tail 7? 9? tarsus 3; bill (along gape?) 4, very stout, § deep 
at base. N. Pacific Coast. I have not seen this species, which seems to be 
well marked. Pauuas, Zoog. R.-A. ii, 305; Gouip, Voy. Sulphur, 49, pl. 
32; SCHLEGEL, J. c. 17; Bonap., Consp. Av. ii, 167; Lawr. in Bp., 877; 
Exisor; pli O0n.95.00 tae - .  . PERSPICILLATUS. 

Tted-faced Cormorant. Fr ont ne at rodehins base of the culmen, 
the bill being entirely surrounded by naked ved skin which also encircles the 
eyes, somewhat carunculate, forming a kind of wattle on each side of the 
chin; base of under mandible blue; feet black, blotched with yellow. 
‘ Crown with a median black crest, and nape with another, in the same line. 
In the specimen examined, a large white flank-patch, but no white plumes on 
neck. Plumage richly iridescent, mostly green, but violet and steel-blue 
on the neck, purplish, violet and bronzy on the back and wings, the feathers 
there without definite dark edgings. Length 83; extent 48; wing 12; tarsus 
2%; gape of bill 3. Kadiak, Alaska; described from the single recognized 
specimen, No. 52, 512, Mus. Smiths. Inst., the same noticed by Barrp, Trans. 
Chicago Acad. i, 321, pl. 33; believed to represent the Phalacrocorax bicris- 
tatus of Pautuas, Zoog. R.-A. ii, 183. Probably the “red-faced cormorant,” 
Pelecanus urile, of Pennant, Latham and Gmelin, but as this point cannot 
be decided, I accept Baird’s identification. . . . . .« BICRISEARUE. 

Violet-green Cormorant. Frontal feathers eae culmen; gular sac 
inconspicuous, very extensively feathered, the Pe reaching on the sides 
of the under mandible to below the eyes, and running in a point on the sac 
far in advance of this. Small; length 24-28; wing 10-11; tail 6 or less; 
tarsus 2 or less; bill along. gape 3 or less, very slender, and smooth on the 
sides, its depth at base about 4. Deep lustrous green, including the back ; 
the scapulars, wing coverts and sides of the body iridescent with purplish or 
coppery, the neck with rich violet and blue; gular sac orange; feet black; 
Two median lengthwise crests as in the last two species. Among the speci- 
mens before me, one has no white flank-patch, but a few white scattered 
plumes on the neck; another, marked ¢, has none of these, but a large 
snowy tuft on the flanks. <A third, labelled “dairdii, g , Farallones, Apr.’61,” 
has both the flank tufts and the neck plumes ; it is very small, the wing being 
under 10, the tarsus 13, the gape 2%, and the bill is extremely slender; it 
possibly represents a small southern race, bearing somewhat the relation to 


PLOTID, DARTERS.—GEN. 276. 305 


violaceus that floridanus does to dilophus. Pacific Coast, N. A.— Pelecanus 
violaceus Gu., i, 575? Graculus violaceus Lawr. in Bp., 881; ScHLEGEL, 
l.c. 17; Urile bicristatus Bonar., Consp. Av. ii, 175 (nec Pall.) ; Phala- 
crocorax resplendens Aup., vi, 430, pl. 419; G. bairdii Coor., Proc. Phila. 
femteas. Oo, G5 -Pinor, pl. 49.- 2 2. 5 . . « «+. VIOLACEUS. 


Family PLOTIDZ. Darters. 


Bill about twice as long as the head, straight, slender, very acute, paragnathous, 
the tomia with fine serratures. Gular sac moderate, naked. Nostrils minute, entirely 
obliterated in the adult. Wings moderate, the 3d quill longest. Tail rather long, 
stiff, broad and fan-shaped, of 12 feathers widening towards the end, the outer web 
of the middle pair curiously crimped (in our species). 

There is an occipital style, as in cormorants, but it is very small. The digestive 
system shows a remarkable feature; instead of the lower part of the cesophagus 
being occupied by the proventricular glands, these are placed in a small distinct 
sac on the side of the gullet. As in other Steganopodes, the gizzard develops a 
special pyloric cavity. There are no proper ceca, but there is a small rounded 
termination of the rectum (Audubon). 

The darters are birds of singular appearance, somewhat like a cormorant but 
much more slightly built, and with exceedingly long slender neck and small con- 
stricted head that seems to taper directly into the bill. As in the cormorants, there 
are long slender feathers on the neck; the sexes are commonly distinguishable, but 
the 9 is said sometimes to resemble the ¢. Other changes of plumage appear to be 
considerable, but not well made out. The feet are short, and placed rather far 
back, but the birds perch with ease. Unlike most of the order, they are not mari- 
time, shunning the seacoast, dwelling in the most impenetrable swamps of warm 
countries. They fly swiftly, and dive with amazing ease and celerity. They are 
timid and vigilant birds; when alarmed they drop from their perch into the water 
below, noiselessly and with scarcely a ripple of the surface, and swim beneath the 
surface to a safe distance before reappearing. When surprised on the water, they 
have the curious habit of sinking quietly backward, like grebes; and they often 
swim with the body submerged, only the head and neck in sight, looking like some 
strange kind of water serpent. They feed on fish, which they do not dart down 
upon, but dive for and pursue under water like cormorants and loons. The eggs 
are three or four, pale bluish, with white chalky incrustation. There are only three 
or four species: the African P. levaillantii ; the P. melanogaster of Southern Asia, 
with the Australian P. nova-hollandie, if distinct from the last ; with the following : 


276. Genus PLOTUS Linneus. 


Darter. Anhinga. Snake-bird. Water-turkey. Glossy greenish-black ; 
a broad gray wing-band formed by most of the coverts; lower neck behind 
and scapulars speckled with grayish-white; tertiaries striped with silvery 
ash; tail pale-tipped; filamentous feathers of neck purplish-ash; 9? with 
parts of the head, neck and back brown, the jugulum and breast fawn-color 
sharply margined with rich brown. Length about 36; extent nearly 4; wing 
14; tail 11; bill 34; tarsus 14. S. Atlantic and Gulf States, common; in 
summer to North Carolina (Audubon), and up the Mississippi to S. Illinois 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 39 


306 TACHYPETID®, FRIGATES. PHAETHONTIDZ, TROPIC BIRDS. —GEN. 277. 


(Kennicott) ; Fort Thorn, New Mexico (Henry). Norr., ii, 507; Aup., vi, 
443, pl. 420; Lawr. in Bp., 883; P. melanogaster Wixs., ix, 79, 82, pl. 
74, ff. 1,200. ew 


Family TACHYPETIDA. Frigates. 


Bill longer than the head, stout, straight, wider than high at the base, thence 
gradually compressed to the strongly hooked extremity. Nostrils very small, linear, 
almost entirely closed, in a long narrow groove. Gular sac small, but capable of 
considerable distension. Wings exceedingly long and pointed, of about 34 remiges, 
of which the 10 primaries are very powerful, with stout quadrangular shafts ; upper 
and middle portion of the wings greatly lengthened. Tail very long, deeply forked, 
of 12 strong feathers. Feet exceedingly small, the tarsus, in particular, extraor- 
dinarily short (§ 75, p. 45), feathered; middle claw pectinate. Bulk of body 
slight compared with the great length of the wings and tail. Here only in this 
order is found the os wncinatum, a peculiar skull-bone occurring in nearly all the 
petrels, the turacous (Musophagide, p. 178) and many cuckoos. 

The frigates are maritime and pelagic birds of most warm parts of the globe. 
Their general contour is unique among water-birds, in the immense length and 
sweep of the wings, length of the forked tail and extreme smallness of the feet. 
In command of wing they are unsurpassed, and but few birds approach them in this 
respect. They are more nearly independent of land than any other birds excepting 
albatrosses and petrels, being often seen hundreds of miles at sea, and delight to 
soar at an astonishing elevation. They cannot dive, and scarcely swim or walk ; 
food is procured by dashing down on wing with unerring aim, and by harassing 
gulls, terns and other less active or weaker birds until they are forced to disgorge or 
drop their prey. Their habit is gregarious, especially during the breeding season, 
when thousands congregate to nest in low thick bushes by the water’s edge. The 
nest is a shallow flat structure of sticks; the eggs, two or three in number, are 
egreenish-white with a thick smooth shell. ‘‘The young are covered with yellowish- 
white down, and look at first as if they had no feet. They are fed by regurgitation, 
<=> but grow tardily, and do not leave the nest until 
they are able to follow their parents on wing” 
(Audubon). The following is the principal if 
not the only species. 


277. Genus TACHYPETES Vieillot. 
Frigate. Man-of-war Bird. % brownish- 
black, glossed with green or purplish, duller 
on the belly, wings showing brown and 
gray; 2 with white on neck and breast. 
FIG. 199. Frigate. Length about 34 feet ; extent about 8; wing 
2; tail14; bill 5 or 6 inches; tarsi 1 inch or less. S. Atlantic and Gulf Coast. 
Norr., ii, 491; Aup., vii, 10, pl. 421; Lawre. in Bp., 875. - JA@uiiaass 


Family PHAETHONTID. Tropic Birds. 


Bill about as long as the head, stout, straight, compressed, tapering, acute, 
paragnathous. Gular sac rudimentary, almost completely feathered.  Nostrils 


LONGIPENNES, LONG-WINGED SWIMMERS.—GEN. 278. 307 


small, linear, but remaining patulous. Tail with the two middle feathers in the 
adult filamentous and extraordinarily prolonged, the rest short and broad. 

The tropic birds resemble a large, stout. tern in their general figure; the bill, 
especially, being almost exactly like that of a tern. The principal external 
peculiarity is the development of the middle tail-feathers; the feathering of the 
gular sac and the permanent patulence of the nostrils are other features. They 

“ are graceful birds on the wing, capable of protracted flight, venturing far from land. 
They are gregarious at all times, and nest in communities along coasts and on 
islands, in rocky places or among low trees and bushes. As implied in their name, 
they are birds of the torrid zone, though in their extensive wanderings they visit 
Southern seas, and have even been reported from latitude 40° N. There are but three 
well determined species: P. flavirostris (below) ; P. ethereus, and P. rubricauda. 


278. Genus PHAETHON [inneus. 


Tropic Bird. White, satiny, rosy-tinted; long tail feathers reddened, 
black-shafted ; sides of head, wings and flanks varied with black ; bill orange ; 
tarsi yellow; toes and webs black; young with more black on upper parts. 
Wing 11; bill 13-2; tarsus 1; tail 4-5, its middle feathers up to 15-20. 
Gulf Coast, rare or casual. PP. ethereus Nutr., ii, 503; Aup., vii, 64, pl. 
427; P. flavirosiris BRanpDT; Lawe. in Bp., 885. . . . ¥FLAVIROSTRIS. 


Order LONGIPENNES. Long-winged Swimmers. 


Wings long, pointed, reaching when closed beyond the base, in many cases 
beyond the end, of the tail, which is usually lengthened and of less than 20 rec- 
trices (oftenest 12). Legs more or less perfectly beneath centre of equilibrium 
when the body is in the horizontal position; the crura more nearly free from the 
body than in other Natatores, if not completely external. Anterior toes palmate ; 
hallux never united with the inner toe, highly elevated, directly posterior, very small, 
rudimentary or absent; tibiz naked below. Bill of variable form, but never exten- 
sively membranous nor lamellate, the covering horny throughout, sometimes dis- 
continuous. Nostrils variable, but never abortive. No gular pouch. Altricial. 

This order, which may be recognized among web-footed birds by the foregoing 
external characters, is less substantially put together than either of the two preceding 
—not that its components are not sufficiently related to each other, but because the 
essential points of structure are shared to a considerable extent by other groups. 
Thus the osteological resemblances of longipennine birds with loons, auks, and 
plover, are quite close, as noted by Huxley; while the digestive system agrees in 
general characters with that of other fish-eating birds. In some of the lower 
members of the order, the tibia develops an apophysis, as in the loons; while 
eyen in external characters, one genus at least, Hulodroma, resembles the Alcide. 
It is not certain, that the order must not be broken up, or rather enlarged and 
differently defined, to include some of the genera now ranged under Pygopodes. 

The palate has the schizognathous structure; ‘the maxillo-palatines are usually 
lamellar and concavo-convex, but in the Procellariide they become tumid and 
spongy” (Huzley); basipterygoid processes may be often wanting, but they are 
certainly present in many more cases than Huxley supposed. There is appar- 
ently one pair of syringeal muscles throughout the order. The cesophagus is capa- 


308 LARIDE, GULLS, TERNS, ETC.—GEN. 279-80. 


cious and distensible; there is no special crop; the proventriculus is a bulging of 
the gullet; the gizzard is small and little muscular; the ceeca are variable; the 
cloaca is large. Certain genera offer peculiarities of this general type of alimentary 
canal. According to Nitzsch, the pterylosis of the gulls ‘‘ approaches very closely 
that of the Scolopacide, and can hardly be distinguished therefrom with certainty 
by any character.” In the terns, ‘‘in consequence of the slender and elegant form 
of the body, the tracts are very narrow, and perfectly scolopacine.” The jaégers. 
differ ‘‘in having the outer branch of the inferior tract united with the main stem 
in the first part of its course, and all the tracts still broader and stronger than in” 
the gulls; while in the petrels, ‘‘ the tract formation of the jaégers is elevated into 
the type of a group, undergoing scarcely any change in the form of the inferior 
tract, but showing some little modification of the dorsal tract.” 

As here constituted, the order embraces two families, to be known by the char- 
acter of the nostrils ; both are well represented in this country. 


Family LARIDA. Gulls, Terns, etc. 


Nostrils not tubular (linear, linear-oblong, oval or drop-shaped), sub-basal or 
median, lateral, pervious. The hallux, though very small and elevated, with its tip 
hardly touching the ground, is, except in one instance, better developed than in the 
petrels. The habitat is fluviatile, lacustrine and maritime, rather than pelagic. 
The family contains four leading genera, each of which may be assumed as the 
basis of a subfamily; all four occur in North America. 


Subfamily LESTRIDINA. Jaégers, or Skua Gulls. 


Covering of bill discontinuous, the upper mandible being saddled with a large 
horny ‘‘cere,” beneath the edges of which the nostrils open (unique, among water- 
birds) ; bill epignathous. Tail nearly square, but the middle pair of feathers 
abruptly long-exserted. Feet strong, the podotheca granular or otherwise roughened 
behind, scutellate in front; webs full. Certain pterylographic characters have been 
already noted. A leading anatomical peculiarity in the large size of the ceca, as 
compared with the cases of the other subfamilies. There is but one genus, and only 
four species are well determined. They belong more particularly to the northern 
hemisphere, although some also, inhabit southern seas; they mostly breed in 
boreal regions, but wander extensively at other seasons. They inhabit sea coasts, 
and also large inland waters; the nidification resembles that of the gulls; eggs, 
2-3, dark-colored, variegated. The sexes are alike; the young different, excepting 
one species; there is also a particular melanotic plumage, apparently a normal 
transient condition. At first the central tail feathers do not project, and they grow 
tardily. The skua gulls are eminently rapacious, whence their name of “jaeger” 
(hunter) ; they habitually attack and harass terns and the smaller gulls, until these 
weaker and less spirited birds are forced to drop or disgorge their prey. Their 
flight is vigorous ; lashing the air with the long tail; they are able to accomplish the 
rapid and varied evolutions required for the successful practice of piracy. Thus 
in their leading traits they are marine Raptores; whilst the cered bill furnishes a 
curious analogy to the true birds of prey. ‘ 


279-80. Genus STERCORARIUS Brisson. 


* Bill shorter than middle toe without claw; tarsus shorter than middle toe and 
claw ; central rectrices little projecting, broad to the tip. (Buphagus.) 


LARIDZ, JAEGERS.—GEN. 279-80. 309 


Skua Gull. Length about 2 feet; wing 17 inches; tail 6; tarsus 23; 
middle toe and claw 3; bill about 2, its depth at base #. Above, blackish- 
brown, varied with chestnut and whitish ; throat and sides of neck yellowish- 
brown, streaked with white; below, fusco-rufous, with an ashy shade; quills 
blackish, with white shafts and a conspicuous large white area at base; tail 
feathers blackish, white at the base; very old birds are much darker and 
more uniform brown, almost blackish above, rather smoky brown below. 
Northern N. Am., rare or casual; “California.” Lestris cataructes Nurt., 
ii, 312; Stercorarius cataractes Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. 1853, 71, and in 
Bp., 838; Buphagus skua Couss, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1863, 125. . sxkua. 

** Bill and tarsi relatively longer than in the foregoing ; central rectrices finally 
projecting far beyond the rest. Smaller and less robust. (Stercorarius.) 

Pomarine Jaéger. Middle tail feathers finally projecting about 4 inches, 
broad to the tip. Length about 20 inches; wing 14; bill 13-12; tarsus 
about 2. Adult: back, wings, tail, crissum and lower belly blackish-brown, 
deepening on the top of the head and slight occipital crest to brownish- 
black ; below, from bill to belly, and neck all round, pure white, excepting 
acuminate feathers of sides of neck, which are pale yellow; quills whitish 
basally, their shafts largely white ; tarsi above blue, below, with the toes and 
webs, black. Wot quite adult: as before, but breast with dark spots, sides 
of the body with dark bars, blackish of lower belly interrupted ; feet black. 
Younger: whole under parts, with upper wing and tail coverts, variously 
marked with white and dark; feet blotched with yellow. Young: whole 
plumage transversely barred with dark brown and rufous; feet mostly 
yellow. Dusky stage (coming next after the barred plumage just given?) ; 
fuliginous, unicolor; blackish-brown all over, quite black on the head, 
rather sooty brown on the belly; sides of the neck slightly gilded. 
Northern N. Am., ranging S. to the Middle States in winter. Sw. and 
Ricn., F. B.-A. ii, 429; Notr., ii, 315; Avp., vii, 186, pl. 451; Lawr. 
eee Cours. ¢, 129-5 . 2. . . 2. . . . POMATORHINUS. 

Parasitic, or Richardson’s Jaéger. Middle tail feathers finally projecting 
about 4 inches, tapering, acuminate; smaller; wing 12-13; tarsus 12-1]; 
bill 14-14; tail 5-6, the long feathers up to 9 inches. -Adul¢: upper parts, 
including top of the head and slight occipital crest, and crissum, blackish- 
brown, deeper on wings and tail; chin, throat, sides of head, neck all round 
and under parts to the vent, white, the sides of the neck pale yellow; quills 
and tail feathers with whitish shafts ; feet blue and black. Younger: clouded 
below with dusky in variable pattern and amount. Young: barred cross- 
wise with rufous and dusky; feet mostly yellow. There is a fuliginous 
stage, precisely as in the last species. Northern N. Am.; U.S. in winter. 
Lestris richardsonii Sw., F. B.-A. ii, 433, pl. 73 (in dusky plumage) ; 
Norr., ii, 319 (dusky) ; Avp., vii, 190, pl. 452; Stercorarius richardsonii 
Cougs, |. c. 135; Lestris cepphus Nutt., ii, 318 (adult); Stercorarius 
parasiticus Lawr. in Bp., 839; Cours, /.c. 132. . . . . PARASITICUS. 

Arctic, Long-tailed, or Buffon’s Jaéger. Middle tail feathers finally pro- 


310 LARIDZ, GULLS. 


jecting 8 or 10 inches, very slender and almost filamentous for a great part of 
their length; smaller still; wing about 12; tail about 6; tarsus 14-13; bill 
1-14; plumage as in the last. Same habitat. Lestris parasiticus Sw. and 
Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 430; Nurr., ii, 317; Avup., vii, 192, pl. 453; S. cep- 
phus Lawr. in Bp., 840; &. buffonit Couns, 1.c. 136. . . . BUFFONII. 


Subfamily LARINA. Gulls. 


Covering of bill continuous, horny throughout: bill more or less strongly epi- 
gnathous, compressed, with more or less protuberant gonys ;' nostrils linear-oblong, 
median or sub-basal, pervious. Tail even or nearly so, rarely forked or cuneate, 
without projecting middle feathers. Certain of the smaller slenderer-billed species 
alone resemble terns, but may be known by the not forked tail (except Xema) ; in 
all the larger species, the hook of the bill is distinctive. Gulls average much larger 
than terns, with stouter build; the feet are larger and more ambulatorial, the wings 
are shorter and not so thin; the birds winnow the air in a steady course unlike the 
buoyant dashing flight of their-relatives. They are cosmopolitan; species occur in 
abundance on all sea coasts, and over large inland waters ; in general, large numbers 
are seen together, not only at the breeding places, but during the migrations, and 
in winter, when their association depends upon community of interest in the matter 
of food. This is almost entirely of an animal nature, and consists principally of 
fish ; the birds seem to be always hungry, always feeding or trying to do so. Many 
kinds procure food by plunging for it, like terns; others pick up floating substances ; 
some of the smaller kinds are adroit parasites of the pelicans, snatching food from 
their very mouths. They all swim lightly —a circumstance explained by the small- 
ness of the body compared with its apparent dimensions with the feathers on. The 
voice of the larger species is hoarse, that of the smaller shrill; they have an 
ordinary note of several abrupt syllables during the breeding season, and a harsh ery 
of anger or impatience; the young emit a querulous whine. The nest is commonly 
built on the ground; the eggs, 2-3 in number, are variegated in color. 

Several circumstances conspire to render the study of these birds difficult. 
With few exceptions, they are almost identical in form; while in size they show an 
unbroken series. Individual variability in size is high; northerly birds are usually 
appreciably larger than those of the same species hatched further south; the 
exceeds the 9? a little (usually) ; very old birds are likely to be larger, with espec- 
ially stouter bill, than young or middle aged ones. There is, besides, a certain plas- 
ticity of organization, or ready susceptibility to modifying influences, so marked 
that the individuals hatched at a particular spot may be appreciably different in some 
slight points from others reared but afew miles away. One pattern of coloration runs 
through nearly all the species : they are white, with a darker mantle (stragulum ; § 38, 
p. 17), and in most cases with black crossing the primaries near the end, the tips of the 
quills white. The shade of the mantle is very variable in the same species, accord- 
ine to climate, action of the sun, friction and other causes; the pattern of the 
black on the quills is still more so, since it is continually changing with age, at least 
until a final stage is reached. Incredible as it may appear, species and even genera 
have been based upon such shadowy characters. One group of species has the 
head enveloped in a dark hood in the breeding season, the under parts tinted with 
peach-blossom hue. The sexes are always alike; the moult appears to be twice a 
year, so that a winter plumage more or less different from that of summer results ; 
while the young are never like the old. The change is slow, generally requiring 


LARIDZ, GULLS.—GEN. 281-5. 811 


2-3 years ; in the interim, birds are found in every stage. They are always darker 
than the old, often quite dusky ; usually with black or flesh-colored bill ; and of those 
with black on the primaries when adult, the young usually have these quills all 
black. There being no peculiar extra-limital species, those of our country give a 
perfect idea of the whole group. Some seventy-five species are currently reported ; 
there are certainly not over fifty, and I doubt that there are over forty unques- 
tionable species. For these, thirty! generic names have been invented, nine-tenths 
of which are simply preposterous. 

N.B. In using the following descriptions, understand that the color is white, 
unless otherwise stated. 


281-5. Genus LARUS Linnezus. 

A. Species of largest to medium size, of robust form, with a stout bill, more or 
less strongly hooked, and protuberant at the symphysis ; the white of the under parts 
never rosy-tinted, nor the head enveloped in a dark-colored hood. 

a. Hind toe well developed, bearing a perfect claw. 

* Tail of the adult entirely white. ; 
7 Feet not black; and with full webs. 
{ Primaries without any black. 

Glaucous Gull. Ice Gull. Burgomaster. Primaries entirely white, or 
palest possible pearly-blue fading insensibly into white at some distance from 
the end, their shafts straw-yellow; mantle. palest pearly-blue; bill yellow, 
with vermilion spot on lower mandible ; feet flesh colored or pale yellowish. 
In winter, head and hind neck lightly touched with dusky. Young: impure 
white, with or without traces of pearly on the mantle ; head, neck and upper 
parts mottled with pale brownish (sometimes quite dusky on the back), the 
under parts a nearly uniform but very faint shade of the same, the quills and- 
tail often imperfectly barred with the same; bill flesh-colored or yellowish, 
black-tipped. Very large; length about 50; extent 60; wing 18, or more; 
bill 22 or more; tarsi 3 or more. Arctic America; S. coastwise in winter 
to the Middle States. Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 416; Nurrt., ii, 306; Aup., vii, 
170, pl. 449; Lawr. in Bp., 842.—Z. hutchinsii Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 419? 
Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 294, and Proc. Essex Inst. v, 306; Exuior, 
pl. 53 (young). . -  GEAUCUS. 

White-winged Gull. Preeinely like the last, but aners ; length about 

24 (rather less than more) ; wing 16-17; bill 12-2; tarsus 2-24. Same 
habitat. Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 418; Nutr., ii, 305; Avp., vii, 159, pl. 447; 
Mame i BD., S45... °- . . . LEUCOPTERUS. 

Glaucous-winged Gull. Bi enaiies ‘of the dolor of the mantle to the very 
tips, which are occupied by definite small white spots; the 1st also with a 
large white sub-apical spot. Mantle average “gull-blue ;” bill yellow with 
red spot; feet flesh-colored ; in winter, the head and hind neck clouded with 
dusky. Young: gray, more or less variegated with whitish, chiefly in bars 
on the back and wings; bill black, or pale with dark tip. Size and shape of 
argentatus ; the adult is exactly like that species, excepting that the primaries 
have the color of the mantle, instead of black; the young are much paler 
than young herring-gulls. I have seen no specimens not instantly distin- 


312 LARIDH, GULLS. —GEN. 281-5. 


guishable from the foregoing. Pacific Coast, common; breeding northerly ; 

U.S. in winter. L. glaucescens and L. chalcopterus (younger) Lawr. in 

Bp., 842, 843; Cougs, J. c. 295; Bonar., Consp. Av. ii, 216; ZLaroides 

glaucopterus BRUCH. . + . « « «+ «© « » « « « « GUADOMSGEINEE 
{tt Primaries crossed with black (adult), or all black (young). 

Great Black-backed Gull. Saddle-back. Coffin-carrier. Cobb. Feet 
flesh-colored ; bill yellow with red spot. Mantle blackish slate-color; 1st 
primary with the end white for 2-3 inches; 2nd primary with a white sub- 
apical spot, and, like the remaining ones that are crossed with black, having 
the tip white (when not quite mature, the 1st with small white tip and sub- 
apical spot, the 2nd with white tip alone). In winter, head and neck streaked 
with dusky. Young: whitish, variously washed, mottled and patched with 
brown or dusky ; quills and tail black, with or without white tips ; bill black. 
Very large; equalling or even exceeding L. glaucus. N. Atlantic; S. along 
the U. S. coast in winter; Florida ( Audubon): Nott., ii, 308; Avup., vii, 
172, ‘pl.“450; Lawes in Bp... 644). 2 ee - + 0) = CRIN. 


Ozss. JL. fuscus, a European species bearing the same relation to marinus that 
leucopterus does to glaucus, has been attributed to this country, upon insufficient 
evidence. Bonapr., Synopsis U.S. Birds, No. 298; Nourrv., ii, 302. 


Herring Gull. Common Gull. Feet flesh color; bill yellow with red 
spot; mantle pale dull blue (darker than in glaucus, but nothing like the 
deep slate of marinus—much the same as in all the rest of the species) ; 
primaries marked as in marinus (but the great majority of specimens will be 
found to have the not quite mature or final condition) ; length 22-27; wing 
15-18 ; tarsus 24-23; bill about 24 long, about 3-3 deep at the base, and 
about the same at the protuberance. In winter: head and hind neck 
streaked with dusky. Young: at first almost entirely fuscous or sooty- 
brown, the feathers of the back and wings with paler edges; bill black; 
quills and tail black, white-tipped or not; size at the minimum above given. 
As it grows old, it gradually lightens; the head, neck and under parts are 
usually quite whitish, before the markings of the quills are apparent, and 
before the blue begins to show, as it does in patches, mixed with brown ; 
the black on the tail narrows to a bar, at the time the primaries are assuming 
their characters, but this bar disappears before the primaries gain their . 
perfect pattern. At one time the bill is flesh colored or yellowish, black- 
tipped. The American bird proves to average larger than the European in 
all its parts, as observed in several other water-birds: whence L. smithsoni- 
anus Cougs, 1. c. 296. N. Am., abundant, both coastwise and in the 
interior, breeding northward, generally distributed at other seasons. L. 
argentatoides Bonap., Syn. No. 229; Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 417. Nurr., 
ii, 304; Aup., vii, 163, pl. 448; Lawr. in Bp., 844. . . ARGENTATUS. 


Var. occipenTALIs. Mantle notably darker, rather slaty-blue than grayish-blue ; 
bill stouter, especially towards the end, the depth at the protuberance usually rather 
greater than at the base; greatest depth 3; at the nostrils 3. Pacific Coast, 
abundant. Auvp., vii, 161; Lawr.in Bp., 845; Cougs, l.c.296; Extior, pl. 52. The 


LARIDZ, GULLS.—GEN. 281-5. 313 


ordinary Californian bird is distinguished by the above particulars; but connects 
directly with argentatus by the North Pacific strain (Z. borealis Branpt; Barrp, 
Trans. Chicago Acad. i, 324), and the Siberian bird (L. cachinnans PAL. ; Ts 
argentatus var., MippENDoRF, SCHRENK). 

Ring-billed Gull. Adult plumage precisely like that of the last species, 
and its changes substantially the same; bill greenish-yellow, encircled with 
a black band near the end, usually complete, sometimes defective, the tip 
and most of the cutting edges of the bill yellow; in high condition, the 
angle of the mouth and a small spot beside the black, red; feet olivaceous, 
obscured with dusky or bluish, and partly yellow; the webs bright chrome. 
(Observe the coloration of the feet in this and in californicus, as compared 
with argentatus.) Notably smaller than argentatus; length usually 18-20 
inches ; extent about 48 ; wing about 15; bill wnder 2, and only about $ deep 
at the protuberance; tarsus about 2, obviously longer than the middle 
toe. N. Am., abundant and generally distributed. LZ. delawarensis Orv, 
Guthrie’s Geog. 2d Am. ed. ii, 319; Lawr. in Bp., 846; Z. canus Nurr., ii, 
299; L. zonorhynchus Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 421; Nurr., ii, 300; Avup., vii, 
Meemeeree OOURS,/.¢.502. . . . . . . =. . DELAWARENSIS. 

Var. catirornicus. Apparently larger than ordinary delawarensis, and sometimes 
nearly equalling argentatus, averaging perhaps 22 inches; bill about 2, the black 
band probably never perfect, the red spot more obvious ; feet colored as in the last ; 
tarsus 21, yet not, or not obviously, longer than the middle toe and claw. In all the 
adult birds observed, the white spot on the 1st primary had enlarged to occupy the 
whole end of the feather for about 2 inches, while the subapical spot on the 2d was 
large—a state I have not observed in typical delawarensis. Arctic and Western 
America, abundant. Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. 1854, 79, and in Bp., 846; Cours, 
l. c. 300 (excl. syn.). (Type specimen examined.) 

American Mew Gull. Small; length 16-18 inches; extent about 40; 
wing 15-14; bill 14, slender, its depth hardly or not over $; tarsus about 
equal to the middle toe and claw, both about 13. Bill bluish-green, yellow- 
tipped, without any red or black; feet dusky bluish-green, webs yellow. 
Mantle considerably darker than in delawarensis. Arctic and Western N. 
Am., in the interior and along the Pacific Coast to California; I am not 
aware that it occurs on the Atlantic, or anywhere in the United States east 
of the Rocky Mountains ; Nuttall and Bonaparte seem to refer to the pre- 
ceding species in giving this range. It will be seen at once to be different 
from any of the foregoing: and it appears to show constantly some slight 
discrepancies from the European Z. canus. L. canus (adult) and LZ. 
brachyrhynchus (young—type specimen examined) Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 
420, 422; Norr., ii, 299, 301; Couns, l. c. 302; Rissa septentrionalis 
(adult) and L. suckleyi (young —types of both examined) Lawr., Ann. Lye. 
N. Y. vi, 265, 264, and in Bp., 854, 848. CANUS var. BRACHYRHYNCHUS. 

Tf Feet black, stout, rough, with short tarsi and excised webs. (Pagophila.) 

Ivory Gull. Adult plumage entirely pure white, the shafts of the 
primaries yellow; bill yellow, more or less extensively greenish or dusky 
toward the base; feet black. Young: more or less spotted and patched 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 40 


314 LARIDH, GULLS. —GEN. 281-5. 


with blackish, and bill often black. Length 16-20 inches; wing 11-13; 
bill 14-14; tarsi about the same, and rather shorter than the middle toe and 
claw. Quite different from any other species. Arctic America and Europe, 
coastwise, rarely S. to U. S. in winter. Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 419; 
Norr., ii, 8301; Aup., vii, 150, pl. 445 ; Pagophila eburnea and P. brachytarsi 
Lawr. in Bp., 856; Couns, J. ¢. 308, 309. : EBURNEUS. 
** Tail of the adult almost entirely black. (Blasipus.) 
White-headed Gull. Adult with the head white, gradually merging on 
the neck and under parts into pale ash; mantle dark plumbeous; upper tail 
coverts whitish ; ends of secondaries and tertiaries white ; primaries and tail 
feathers black, some of the former usually with white specks at the end, the 
latter white at extreme tip and base; bill red, black-tipped; feet dark. 
This is the final plumage; but the blanching is very gradual and tardy, a 
more usual condition being leaden-gray all over, the mantle slate-gray, the 
quills and tail black. Very young birds are fuliginous brown, paler or 
grayish below, the feathers of the upper parts with lighter brown edges, 
the bill pale with dark tip. Length 16-20 inches; wing 13-14. Pacific 
Coast, U. S. and southward, abundant. L. belcheri Vicors, Zool. Voy. 
Blossom, iv, 358; L. fuliginosus Goutp, Zool. Voy. Beagle, Birds, 141; 
LL. heermanni Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. vi, 1852, 157, and Ill. 28, pl. 5; B. 
heermannit Lawr. in Bp., 848; Couns, /.c. 304. . . . . BELOHERID 
b. Hind toe rudimentary or minute, usually without perfect claw. (dissa.) 
Kittiwake Gull. Wind toe only appearing as a minute knob, its claw 
abortive. Mantle rather dark grayish-blue ; 1st primary with the whole outer 
web, and the entire end for about 2 inches, black; next one, with the end 
black about as far, but outer web elsewhere light, and a white speck at 
extreme tip ; on the rest of the primaries that have black, this color decreases 
in extent proportionally to the shortening of the quills, so that the base of 
the black on all is in the same line when the wings are closed (a pattern 
peculiar to the species of Jissa); and these all have white apex. Bill 
yellow, usually clouded with olivaceous; feet dusky olivaceous. Rather 
small; 16-18 ; wing 12 long; bill 14-14; tarsus about the same; middle toe 
and claw longer ; tail usually slightly emarginate. In winter, nape and hind 
neck shaded with the color of the mantle. Young: bill black; a black bar 
on the tail, another across the neck behind; wings and back variously 
patched with black; dark spots before and behind the eyes; quills mostly 
black. Arctic America and Europe, chiefly coastwise, very abundant; in 
winter, commonly §S. to the Middle States; breeds from New England 
northward. Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 423; Nouorr., 1, 29855Aup, 
vii, 146, pl. 444; Lawr. in Bp., 854; Cougs, J. c. 8304. . TRIDACTYLUS. 
Var. koTzeBurl. It is a curious fact, that the common kittiwake of the North 
Pacific usually has the hind toe better formed — sometimes nearly if not quite as 
long as in ordinary gulls, with a nearly or quite perfect, though small, claw. But 
I cannot predicate a specific character on this score, since the development of the 
toe is by insensible degrees. See Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1869, 207 (footnote). 
Bonap., Consp. Av. ii, 226; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 305; Exxror, pl. 54. 


LARIDZ, GULLS.—GEN. 281-5. aL5 


Short-billed Hittiwake. Red-legged Kittiwake. Bill very short, stout, 
wide and deep at the base, with very convex culmen; its color clear yellow ; 
Jeet coral-red, drying yellow; tarsus only about two-thirds as long as the 
middle toe and claw; hind toe very small (little if any larger than in an 
Atlantic kittiwake, smaller than in the best marked var. kotzebuz), its rudi- 
mentary claw showing as a little black speck. I do not know the young 
bird, in which the color of the bill and feet is probably materially different. 
Adult with the mantle leaden-gray, much darker than in the common kitti- 
wake ; pattern of the primaries essentially the same as in that species. Wing 
13; bill 14-14, its depth at base 4, at angle little less; tarsus 14; middle 
toe and claw nearly 2. North Pacific ye abundant. This is unques- 
tionably a different bird from the foregoing, and in adult plumage it would 
seem impossible to mistake it. Here belong the following names :— 
Rissa brevirostris Branpt; Lawre. in Bp., 855; Dauu and Bann., Trans. 
Chicago Acad. i, 305 (breeding by thousands about St. George’s, Alaska) ; 
Larus brachyrhynchus Gouup, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. , and Zool. Voy. 
Sulphur, 50, pl. 34; Rissa brachyrhyncha Bonar., Consp. Av. ii, 226; 
Coves, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 306; R. brevirostris and R. nivea Lawre. in 
Bp., 855; R. nivea Exot, pl. 54 (not Larus niveus PaLL.). BREVIROSTRIS. 


B. Species of medium to smallest size, of less robust form and slenderer bill 
than most of the foregoing; in the breeding season the white of the under parts 
rosy-tinted, and the head enveloped in a dark-colored hood. (Chreecocephalus.) 


Black-headed, or Laughing Gull. Tarsus one-fourth longer than middle 
toe and claw. Large; 16-19; wing 12-13; tarsus 2; middle toe and claw 
13; bill about 12, the tip elongated and decurved, so that the point comes 
down nearly or quite to the level of the 
small, acute prominence of the gonys. 
Mantle grayish-plumbeous; hood dark 
plumbeous; eyelids white; black on 
primaries taking in nearly all the Ist 4 
quill, but rapidly decreasing to the 6th ; sz 
the white tips very small, few, or want- 
ing; bill and feet dusky carmine. In Fic. 200, Bill of Black-headed Gull. 
winter : not rosy, and unhooded ; head white, with dusky or grayish patches 
on the nape and auriculars. Young: quite brown, paler, grayish or whitish 
below and on the upper tail coverts ; feathers of the back dark with paler 
edges; quills and tail black, or latter white or partly grayish-blue, with a 
black bar; bill and feet dusky or brownish. United States, chiefly coast- 
wise, breeding northward to Bay of Fundy (Boardman), but more abund- 
antly southward; extremely numerous along the South Atlantic coast. 
New Mexico and Arizona (Cowes); Pacific Coast (Xantus). Larus 
ridibundus Wits., ix, 89, pl. 74, f. 4; ZL. atricilla Nutt., ii, 291; Avp., 
Vil, 136, pl. 443; Lawr.in Bp., 850. . . . . i> SP ATRICILEAS 

Franklivs Rosy Gull. Tarsus about equal to the tsikdiane toe and claw. 
Medium; 14-16; wing about 11; bill 14-14; tarsus 1%; bill and feet 


316 LARIDZ, GULLS.—GEN. 286. 


carmine, former usually with a black mark near the end; mantle bluish- 
plumbeous, the ends of the secondaries white nearly an inch; hood blackish- 
plumbeous, with white eyelids. Final pattern of primaries :—shaft of 1st 
entirely white, of next 5 white except in the portion of the quill occupied 
by black; 1st with its outer web and a bar on the inner web, black, leaving 
the tip wholly white an inch or more, rest of the feather pearly white ; 
next 5 crossed by a black bar on both webs, 2-3 inches wide on the 2nd 
quill, narrowing to a mere spot on the 6th; tips of all these broadly white. 
Younger birds have much more black on the wing, in a different pattern, 
and the tail washed with bluish (Ch. cucullatus Licut. ; Lawr. in Bp., 851, 
pl. 95; Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 309). Central America and 
Mexico in winter, migrating in the interior, west of the Mississippi, to 
the Arctic regions ; abundant; has not been observed in the Atlantic States. 
Larus franklini. Ricn., F. B.-A., ii, 424, pl. 71; Nurr., ii, 2933 Aup., 
vii, 145; Ch. franklint Lawr. in Bp., 851... . . . . BRANKQINII 

Bonaparte’s Gull. Tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw. Small; 
12-14; wing 94-104; tarsus 14; bill 14-14, very slender, like a tern’s. 
Adult in summer: O7ll black; mantle pearly blue, much paler than in the 
foregoing ; hood slaty-plumbeous, with white touches on the eyelids; many 
wing coverts white; feet chrome yellow, tinged with coral red; webs ver- 
milion. Primaries finally :—the first 5-6 with the shafts white except at tip ; 
1st white, with outer web and extreme tip black; 2d white, more broadly 
crossed with black ; 3d to 6th—8th with the black successively decreasing. In 
winter, no hood, but a dark auricular spot. Young: mottled and patched 
above with brown or gray, and usually a dusky bar on the wing; the tail 
with a black bar, the primaries with more black, the bill dusky, much of the 
lower mandible flesh-colored or yellowish, as are the feet. N. Am.; breeds 
in the Arctic regions; very abundant in the U. S. during the migration. 
Sterna philadelphia Orv, Guthrie’s Geog. 2d Am. ed. ii, 319; Ch. phila- 
delphia Lawr. in Bp., 852; L. bonapartet Ricu., F. B.-A., ii, 425, pl. 72; 
Nourt., ii, 294; Aup., vii, 131, pl. 442; Couzs, 7. c. 310. PHILADELPHIA. 


Oxs. The sexes of this gull are alike, as in all other cases. Audubon is wrong 
in figuring the 9 with a brown hood. But it is a question whether the ‘* brown- 
headed gull,” Larus capistratus of Bon., Syn. p. 358, No. 293—Norr., ii, 290, 
should be considered as this species, or as the true European bird, L. ridibundus, 
erroneously attributed to this country. The European Least Gull, L. minutus, has 
been introduced to our fauna upon erroneous information, the single authority 
(Saprxe) for its occurrence having doubtless mistaken the last species for it. 
Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 426; Nurv., ii, 289; Lawr. in Bd. 853. See Couss, J. c. 311. 


286. Genus RHODOSTETHIA Macgillivray. 


Wedge-tailed, or Ross’ Rosy Gull. Adult: white, rosy-tinted; a black 
collar, but no hood; mantle pearly-blue ; primaries marked with black; bill 
black ; feet vermilion; length 14; wing 103; “bill along the ridge 2,” very 
slender; tarsus little over 1; tail 54, cuneate, the graduation being one 


— 


LARID, TERNS.—GEN. 287-8. 317 


inch. Arctic America, apparently very rare; I have never scen a specimen, 
and do not know of any in this country. Ricn., F. B.-A. ii, 427; Nurr., 
li, 295; Aup., vii, 130; Lawr. in Bp., 856; Covers, 7. c. 311. . ROSEA. 


287-8. Genus XEMA Leach. 


Fork-tailed Gull. Adult: white, including inner primaries, most of 
secondaries, and greater coverts; head enveloped in a slate-colored hood, 
succeeded by a velvety-black collar; mantle slaty-blue, extending quite to 
the tips of the tertiaries; whole edge of the wing, and first 5 primaries, 
black, their extreme tips, and the outer half of their inner webs to near the 
end, white; bill black, tipped with yellow; feet black; length 13-14; wing 
10-11; bill 1; tarsus 14; tail 5, forked an inch or more. The changes of 
plumage are correspondent with those of LZ. philadelphia; in the young the 
tail is often simply emarginate. Arctic America, both coastwise and in the 
interior, common, but still rare in collections; in winter, S. occasionally to 
New York (Audubon) and Utah (Allen). Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 428; Nurr., ii, 
296 ; Aup., vii, 127, pl. 441 ; Lawr. in Bp., 857; Cours, /.c. 311. SABINEI. 

Swallow-tailed Gull. Wead and nearly all the neck grayish-brown; a 
white spot on each side of the forehead; mantle grayish-white ; lesser wing 
coverts white, greater slate, white-bordered ; bill black at the base, white at 
the end, much bent; eyes and feet red; eyelids orange; claws black; tail 
white, very much forked. Length about 2 feet. 
“California.” This bird appears to be exceedingly 
rare; no one in this country has seen it. The de- 
scription is compiled from the original account. 
Larus furcatus Nesoux, Rey. Zool. 1840, 290; 
Prevost and Des Murs, Voy. Venus, pl. 10; 

- Creagrus furcatus Bonap.; Lawr. in Bp., 857; 
eerste. Cw Ce) )|6CFURCATUM. 


Subfamily STERNINA. Terns. 


Covering of bill continuous (no cere), hard and horny 
throughout; bill paragnathous, relatively longer and 
slenderer than in the gulls, very acute, the commissure 
straight or nearly so to the very end; nostrils generally linear. Tail never square, 
almost invariably forked (often deeply forficate), in one group double-rounded. 
Wings extremely long, thin and pointed. Feet small, weak, scarcely ambulatorial. 

The terns are not distinguished from the gulls by any strong structural pecu- 
liarities, but they invariably show a special contour, in the production of which the 
longer, slenderer and acutely paragnathous bill is a conspicuous element. Only one 
species has the bill in any noticeable degree like that of a gull. A few of the terns 
are as large as middle-sized gulls, but the normal stature is much less; and they 
are invariably of a slenderer build, more trim in shape, with smoother, closer-fitting 
plumage. The great length and sharpness of the wing relative to the bulk of the 
body confer a dash and buoyancy of flight wanting in the gulls; in flying over 
the water in search of food, they hold the bill pointing straight downward, 
which makes them look curiously like colossal mosquitoes; and they secure their 


Fic. 201. Roseate Tern. 


318 LARIDZ, TERNS. 


prey by darting impetuously upon it, when they are usually submerged for a 
moment. The larger kinds feed principally upon little fish, procured in this way ; 
but most of the smaller ones are insectivorous, and flutter about over marshy spots 
like swallows or nighthawks. The general appearance and mode of flight have 
suggested the name of ‘‘sea-swallow,” the equivalent of which is applied in nearly 
all civilized languages. A forking of the tail is an almost universal character. 
In the Caspian and marsh terns, the black tern and its allies, and some others, the 
forking is moderate, and not accompanied by attenuation of the lateral feathers ; but 
ordinarily, these are remarkably lengthened and almost filamentous, as in the barn 
swallow. It should be observed that in all such cases the narrowing elongation is 
gradual, and consequently less evident in the young ; and that it is very variable in 
its development. The noddies offer the peculiarity of a tail lightly forked centrally, 
but rounded laterally. The feet are small and relatively weak throughout the 
group; the terns walk but little, and scarcely swim at all. Ordinarily the webbing 
is rather narrow, and excised, particularly that between the middle and inner toe; 
in Hydrochelidon, this occurs to such extent that the toes seem simply semipalmate. 
The webs are fullest in Anouws, where also the hallux is unusually long; in some 
species, this toe is slightly connected with the tarsus by a web. The inner toe is 
shorter than the outer, and much less than the middle, which, especially in Hydro- 
chelidon, is much lengthened, and has the inner edge of its claw dilated, or even 
slightly serrate. The coloration is very constant, almost throughout the subfamily. 
Most of the species are white (often rosy-tinted below), with a pearly-blue mantle, 
a black cap on the head, and dark-colored primaries, along the inner web of which 
usually runs a white stripe. These dark-colored quills, when new, are beautifully 
frosted or silvered over; but this hoariness being very superficial, soon wears off, 
leaving the feathers simply blackish. The black cap is often interrupted by a white 
frontal crescent ; it is sometimes prolonged into a slight occipital crest; in a few 
species, it is replaced by a black bar on each side of the head. One species, Inca 
mystacalis, has a curious bundle of curly white plumes on each side of the head. 
Another, Gygis alba, is pure white all over; Procelsterna cinerea is wholly ashy : 
the noddies are all fuliginous; the upper parts of Haliplana are dark; the species 
of Hydrochelidon are largely black. These are the principal if not the only excep-- 
tions to the normal coloration just given. ‘The sexes are never distinguishable, 
either by size or color; but nearly all the species, in the progress toward maturity, 
undergo changes of plumage, like gulls; while the seasonal differences are usually 
considerable. As a rule, the black cap is imperfect in young and winter specimens, 
and the former show gray or brown patching instead of the pure final color of the 
mantle. In all those species in which the bill is red, orange or yellow, it is more or 
less dusky in the young. The changes are probably greatest in the black terns. 
The general economy is much the same throughout the group. The eggs are laid 
in a slight depression on the ground—generally the shingle of beaches, or in a 
tussock of grass in a marsh, or in a rude nest of sticks in low thick bushes; they 
are 1-3 in number, variegated in color. Most of the species are maritime, and such 
is particularly the case with the noddies; but nearly all are also found inland. 
They are noisy birds, of shrill penetrating voice; and no less gregarious than 
gulls, often assembling in multitudes to breed, and generally moving in company. 
Species occur near water in almost every part of the world, and most of them 
are widely distributed; of those occurring in North America, the majority are 
found in corresponding latitudes in the Old World. About seventy species are 
currently reported; these must be reduced nearly one-half; the true number is 


LARIDZ, TERNS. — GEN. 289-92. akg 


apparently just about that of the gulls. Some twenty “genera” have been imposed 
upon the terns—three-quarters of these are of no account whatever. 

N.B. Understand white, the pilewm black, the quills silvered-dusky with long 
white stripe, unless the descriptions state otherwise. 


289-92. Genus STERNA Linneus. 

* Bill remarkably short, stout and obtuse, hardly or not half as long again as 
the tarsus. ((relochelidon.) 

Gull-billed, or Marsh Tern. Bill and feet black; mantle pearly grayish- 
blue, this color extending on the rump and tail; primaries with the white 
stripe restricted to their base, their shafts white. Length 13-15; extent 
about 34; wing 10-12; tail 4, forked only 2 or less, the lateral feathers little 
narrowed; tarsi 1-14; bill 1$. Eastern United States; apparently not 
abundant in this country. Europe, ete. S. aranea Wits., viii, 143, pl. 72, 
f. 6; Lawr. in Bp., 859; S. anglica Nutt., ii, 269; Avp., vii, 81, pl. 430; 
Gelochelidon anglica Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 536. . . ANGLICA. 

** Bill of an ordinary sternine character. 

7 Occiput slightly crested. Feet black. Size large. (Thalasseus.) 

Caspian Tern. Bill red. Mantle pearly grayish-blue; cap extending 
below the eyes, but the under eyelid white; primaries without any white 
band. In winter, black of the cap chiefly restricted to the occiput; young, 
with the bill dusky and yellowish, the back, wings and tail patched with 
brown or blackish. Much the largest of the terns; length 20 or more; 
wing 15-17; tail 5-6, moderately forked, without narrowed feathers ; bill 
24-22, very stout, # or more deep at base, $ wide opposite nostrils; tarsus 
13-13; middle toe and claw rather less. Arctic America and Europe, 8S. 
in winter to the Middle States; apparently not abundant in this country. 
Lawe. Ann. Lye. N. Y., 1851, v, 37; Cours, /. c. 537 eal tmperator), and 
Proce. Essex Inst. v, 308; Exuior, pl. 56. . . . | CASEEA. 

ftoyal Tern. Bill orange. Mantle pearly Beivieh: Sid: In winter, bill 
duller colored ; cap mostly restricted to occiput: rump and tail shaded with 
the color of the mantle. Young, with the crown much like that of the adults 
in winter; upper parts without bluish, or this only showing in patches, and 
variously spotted with dusky. Scarcely shorter than the last, owing to 
length of tail, but much less bulky; length 18-20; wing 14-15; tail 6-8, 
decay forked, with narrowed lateral exhort: tarsus about 14, middle toe 
and claw rather more than less; bill 23-23 (in the young sometimes only 
24), 4-% deep at base, the gonys about 1 long. Atlantic Coast, U. S., to 
New York (Lawrence), abundant southerly ; California? S. cayana Nutr., 
ii, 268; Aup., vii, 76, pl. 429; S. regia GamBEL, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1848, 
128; Lawre. in Bp., 859; Thalasseus regius Cours, 1. ¢. 538. REGIA. 

Elegant Tern. Similar to the last; mantle very pale; under parts rosy- 
tinted in high plumage. Smaller and somewhat differently proportioned ; 
bill much slenderer; tarsus obviously longer than middle toe and claw. 
Length about 17; wing 12-13; tail 6-7; bill 24, under $ deep at base, the 
gonys about 14 long; tarsus rather over 1; middle toe and claw under 1. 


320. LARIDA, TERNS. — 289-92. 


California, Mexico, Cent. and S. Am., and Africa. S. galericulata Licur., 
Verz. 1823, 81; S. elegans Gams., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1848, 129; Lawr. 
in Bp. 860; Thalasseus elegans Cours, 1. c. 540. . . . GALERICULATA. 

Sandwich Tern. Bill black, tipped with yellow. Plumage as in regius 


or galericulata, but mantle extremely pale; smaller; length 15-16; wing 


about 12; tail 5-6; bill 
2-24, the yellow part 
from # of an inch to a 
mere point; tarsus 1; 
middle toe and claw 14. 
Atlantic and Gulf Coast 
of U. S., abundant. 
Europe. S. boysti 
Nutr., ii, 276; S. can- 
tiaca AuD., vii, 87, pl. 
431; S. acuflavida Caxnot, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1847, 257; Lawr. 
in Bp., 860; Thalasseus acuflavidus Cours, 1. c. 540. . . . CANTIACA. 


Fra. 202. Sandwich Tern. 


tt Occiput not crested. Feet not black. Medium and small. (Sterna.) 

Common Tern.  Wilson’s Tern. Sea Swallow. Bill red, blackening on 
the terminal third, the very point usually light; feet coral-red. Mantle 
pearly grayish-blue ; primary shafts white except at the end; below white, 
washed with pale pearly plumbeous, blanching on throat and lower belly. 
Tail mostly white, the outer web of the outer feather darker than the inner 
web of the same. Length of g 143% (13 to 16); extent 31 (29-32); wing 
10$ (92-112) ; tail 6 (5-7); tarsus 3? (3-g); bill 12 (14-4); whole foot 
averaging 12; 9 rather less; averaging toward these minima: young birds 
may show a little smaller, in length of tail particularly, and so of total length ; 
length 124-; wing 9+; tail 4+; bill 144. In winter, this species does not 
appear to lose the black cap, contrary to a nearly universal rule. Young: 
bill mostly dusky, but much of the under mandible yellowish; feet simply 
yellowish ; cap more or less defective; back and wings patched and barred 
with gray and light brown, the bluish showing imperfectly if at all, but this 
color shading much of the tail; usually a blackish bar along the lesser 
coverts, and several tail feathers dusky on the outer web; below, pure white, 
or with very little plumbeous shade. N. Am., abundant; breeds at various 
points along the Atlantic States, and northward. It does not differ in the 
least from the European. S. hirundo Wi1s., vii, 76, pl. 60, f. 1; Aup., vii, 
97, pl. 483; Nurv., ii, 271; S. wilsont Lawr. in Bp., 861. . HIRUNDO: 

Forster’s Tern. Like the last; larger, tail longer and wings shorter. 
Wing of adult 94-104; tail 63-8, thus often beyond the extreme of hirundo, 
and nearly as in macroura; bill 1% (13-13), and about 2 deep at base 
(in hirundo rarely if ever so deep) ; tarsus seldom down to §; whole foot 
about 2. Little or no plumbeous wash below; cnner web of the outer tail 
feather darker than the outer web of the same. Young and winter birds 
may be distinguished from hirundo at gunshot range ; the black cap is almost 


LARIDZ, TERNS.—GEN. 289-92. 321 


entirely wanting, and in its place is a broad black band on each side of the 
head through the eye; several lateral tail feathers are largely dusky on 
the inner webs; their outer webs are white. (Sterna havelli! AupuBON, 
vii, 103, pl. 334.) N. Am., at large, abundant. S. Airundo Sw. and Ricu., 
F. B.-A. ii, 412; S. forsteri Nutr., ii, 274; Lawre. 
in Bp., 862. See Covess, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 
543, 544; In., tbid. 1871, 44. . . . ‘FORSTERII. 

Arctic Tern. Bill carmine or lake-red throughout ; 
feet vermilion. Plumage like that of hirundo, but 
much darker below, the plumbeous wash so heavy 
that these parts are but little if any paler than the 
mantle ; crissum pure white in marked contrast; the 
throat and sides of the neck pale or white. In 
winter, cap defective; in young, the same; upper. 
parts patched with gray, brown or rufous; under 
parts paler or white; a dark bar on the wing; outer 
webs of several tail feathers dusky; bill blackish or dusky-red with 
yellow on the under mandible; feet dull orange. Smaller than hirundo, 
but tail much longer. Length 14-17; extent 28-30; wing 10-12; tail 
5-8 ; bill 12-12 ; tarsus only 4-3; whole foot about 13. Europe; N. Am., 
especially coastwise and northerly; breeds plentifully in New England and 
northward; abundant in Alaska. SS. arctica Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 
414; Norr., ii, 275; Aup., vii, 107, pl. 436; S. macroura Lawr. in Bo., 
Peeemurs.1.¢. 549... . . » MACROURA. 

Pikes Tern. Bill black, or seals Black, the Hoan alton whitish. Plum- 
age resembling that of Airundo, and size about the same; wings and tail 
relatively longer; bill 14-14, very slender, +2 se; tarsi $-2. 
Pacifie Coast, N. Am. I have never seen an adult, nor indeed any authentic 
specimen of this bird; but the type of Sterna pikei (a young bird, in poor 


Fig. 203. Foot of Forster’s Tern. 


_ condition) which I have examined, seems almost unquestionably referable 


here ; if not this species, it is a young macroura. WS. longipennis NorRpMANN, 
Verz. 1835, 17; MippEenporr, Sibirische Reise, 246, pl. 25, f. 4; ScHLEGEL, 
M. P.-B. Sterne, 23. S. pikei Lawr., Ann. Lyc. 1853, 3 and in Bp., 863; 
DE) Se Ce Sk te Cw) 6e 6LONGIPENNIS. 

Ftoseate Tern. Bill black, usually orange at base below. Mantle very 
pale pearly blue; primaries with the white band broad and usually extending 
to the very tip; below, pure white, or rosy-tinted ; feet coral-red. Changes 
of plumage as in other species. Length 12-16; wing 9-10; tail 5-8; bill 
14-14, very slender; tarsus ?-$. Atlantic Coast, U. S., abundant. S. doug- 
alli Nutr., ii, 278; Aup., vii, 112, pl. 437; S. paradisea Lawe. in Bp., 
weeregume,?.c. 551... . . «! <, PARADISAIA: 

Least Tern. Bill yellow, Rsually fiphed wate Blac: Mantle pale pearly 
grayish-blue, extending unchanged on the rump and tail; a white frontal 
crescent, separating the black cap from the bill, bounded below by a black 
loral stripe reaching the bill; shafts of two or more outer primaries black on 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 41 


322 LARIDH, TERNS.—GEN. 289-92. 


the upper surface, white underneath ; feet orange. Young; cap too defective 
to show the crescent; bill dark, much of the under mandible pale; feet 
obscured. Very small, only 8-9; wing 6-64; tail 2-34; bill 1-14; tarsus 4. 
U. S. and somewhat northward, chiefly coastwise, abundant. Appears to be 
perfectly distinct from the European bird. S. minuta Wixs., vii, 80, pl. 
60, f. 2; Aup., vii, 119, pl. 439. S. superciliaris Vreritot, Dict. Detery. 
1819, xxxii, 176. S. argeniea Maxm., Voy: i, 67; Nurr., ii, 260,00. 
antillarum and melanorhyncha Lesson, 1847; Cours, J. c. 552. WS. frenata 
Gamp., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1848, 128; Lawr. in Bp., 864. sUPERCILIARIS. 

Trudeaws Tern. Bill orange, crossed by a blackish band, the tip yellow. 
Entire plumage pearly grayish-blue, little if any paler below than above 
but whitening on the head; a black band through the eye; no black cap. 
Size and proportions precisely as in forsteri (excepting shorter tail?). 
South and Central America, rare or only casual on the Atlantic Coast 
(New Jersey and Long Island, Zrudeau). Avup., vii, 105, pl. 485; Lawr. 
in Bp., 861; Cours, /.c. 542. . . 7 (Rope aan 

tit No occipital crest. Feet and bill black ; colors darker 
than in any of the foregoing. Size medium. *(Haliplana.) 

Aleutian Tern. Top of the head black, with a 
white frontal crescent; back very dark ash, or dull 
slaty-blue; under parts similar, paler; tail white ; 
chin and sides of head, edge and lining of wings, and shafts of primaries, 
white. Length about 14; wing 104; tail 74, forked nearly 4; bill 14; 
tarsus .55; middle toe and claw 14. Alaska; one specimen known. A 
remarkable species, entirely different from any other known to me; it stands 
exactly between Sierna proper and Haliplana, and appears related to 
S. lunata Peate (Cass., U. S. Expl. Exp. 1858, 382). Barrp, Trans. 
Chicago Acad., 1, 1869; 321, pli dl, fe 2 kee . . ALEUTICA, 

Sooty Tern. Brownish-black, continuous from heed ti tail; under parts, 
outer web of outer tail feather, and a frontal crescent, white. The frontal 
lunule is short and wide, its horns not reaching beyond the eyes; the black 
loral stripe does not quite reach the bill. Very young birds are fuliginous, 
speckled with white. Length 15-17; wing 11-12; tail 6-8; bill 13-2; 
tarsus g. Atlantic and Gulf Coast, southerly; breeds by thousands in 
Florida, with the noddies. Whits., viii, 145, pl. 72, f. 7; Nurr., ii, 284; 
Aup., vii, 90, pl. 482; Lawr. in Bp., 861..... . . . . #UIGEyOsme 


Fic. 204. Aleutian Tern. 


Bridled Tern. Slaty-gray, blackening on crown and quills, the color of 


the head separated from that of the back by an ashy-gray interval on the 
cervix ; white frontal crescent very narrow, with long horns reaching beyond 
the eyes, involving the upper eyelid and forming a superciliary line; black 
loral stripe reaching the bill; under parts, and most of 2-3 outer tail 
feathers, white; smaller than the last, and easily distinguished. Central 
America, and various warmer parts of the world; I introduced it to our 
fauna upon the strength of a specimen from Audubon’s collection, now in 
Mr. Lawrence’s cabinet, labelled “Florida.” (8. anosthetus Scorour (fide 


LARIDZ, TERNS.—GEN. 293, 294. 323 


Gray) ; S. panayensis of aurHors: Haliplana discolor Covues, Ibis, 1864, 
392; Lawrence, Ann. Lyc.N. Y. viii, 105; Exuior, pl. 57. ANosTHzTA. 


293. Genus HYDROCHELIDON Boie. 


Black, or Short-tailed Tern. Adult in breeding plumage: head, neck 
and under parts, uniform jet-black; back, wings and tail, plumbeous; 
primaries unstriped ; crissum pure white; bill black. In winter and young 
birds, the black is mostly replaced by white on the forehead, sides of head 
and under parts, the crown, occiput and neck behind, with the sides under 
the wings, being dusky gray; a dark auricular patch and another before the 
eye; in a very early stage, the upper parts are varied with dull brown. 
Small; wing 8-9, little less than the whole length of the bird; tail 34, 
simply forked; bill 1-14; tarsus 3; middle toe and claw 14. N. Am., 
chiefly inland, breeding in marshy places. S. plwmbea 
Wius., vii, 83, pl. 60, f. 3 (young); H. plumbea Lawr. 
in Bp., 864; S. nigra Notr., ii, 282; Avp., vii, 116, 
pl. 438; #. fissipes Cours, |. c. 554. . . FISSIPES. 


294. Genus ANOUS Leach. 


Noddy Tern. Frontal feathers in convex outline on ~~ 
the bill (the antiz, shown by all the foregoing, here jyrg os. Foot of Black 
wanting) ; webs remarkably full; tail graduated laterally, ns 
emarginate in the middle, the feathers broad aud stiffish. Plumage 
fuliginous, blackening on quiHs and tail, with a plumbeous cast on the 
head and neck, the crown more or less purely white; bill black; length 
15-17; wing 10-11; tail 6-7; bill 14-12; tarsus 1; middle toe and claw 
12-1%. SS. Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, breeding in vast multitudes ; the nest 
is placed on bushes. Norv., ii, 285; Aup., vii, 123, pl. 440; Lawr. in 
Bp., 865. A. stolidus and A. frater Cours, 1.c. 558. . . . SsTOLIDUs. 


Subfamily RHYNCHOPINA. Skimmers. 


Bill hypognathous. Among the singular bills of birds that frequently excite our 
wonder, that of the skimmers is one of the most anomalous. The under mandible 
is much longer than the upper, compressed like a knife-blade; its end is obtuse; 


: Gee SANA \ e : AN ae 
BRAHMIN \\ 


Fic. 205. Bill of Skimmer. 
its sides come abruptly together and are completely soldered ; the upper edge is as 
sharp as the under, and fits a groove in the upper mandible; the jawbone, viewed 
apart, looks like a short-handled pitch-fork. The upper mandible is also com- 


324 LARIDH, SKIMMERS. —GEN. 295. 


pressed, but less so, nor is it so obtuse at the end; its substance is nearly hollow, 
with light cancellated structure, much as in a toucan; it is freely movable by means 
of an elastic hinge at the forehead. There are cranial peculiarities. Conformably 
with the shape of the mouth, the tongue differs from that of other Longipennes in 
being very short and stumpy, as in kingfishers, and the Steganopodes. ‘The wings 
are exceedingly long, and the flight more measured and sweeping than that of terns ; 
the birds fly in close flocks moving simultaneously, rather than in straggling com- 
panies. They seem to feed as they skim low over water, with the fore parts inclined 
downward, the under mandible probably grazing or cutting the surface; but they 
are also said to use their odd bill to pry open weak bivalve mollusks. The voice 
is very hoarse and raucous, rather than strident. They are somewhat nocturnal or 
at least crepuscular ; their general economy is the same as that of terns, as are all 
points of structure excepting those above specified. Besides the following, there 
are only two species: &. flavirostris and J. albicollis, of Asia. 


295. Genus RHYNCHOPS Linneeus. 


Black Skimmer. Cut-water. Glossy black, the forehead, sides of head 
and neck and all under parts pure white, or rosy-tinted ; tail ashy and white ; 
bill red, black-tipped; feet orange. Young: grayish-black or dull brown 
above, varied with white ; bill yellow, dusky-tipped. Length 16-20 inches ; 
extent 3-4 feet ; wing 13-15; tail 4-5, forked ; under mandible 34-44, upper 
24-8. Coast of South Atlantic and Gulf States, very abundant; frequently 
to the Middle States, and even straying to New England. Wis., vii, 85, pl. 
60, f.4; Nurt., ii, 264; AvD., vii, 67, pl. 428; Lawr. in Bp., 866. NIGRA. 


Family PROCELLARIIDA. Petrels. 


Nostrils tubular. Bill epignathous; its covering discontinuous, consisting of 
several horny pieces separated by deep grooves. Hallux small, elevated, func- 
tionless, appearing merely as a sessile claw, often minute, absent in two genera. 

These are oceanic birds, rarely landing except to breed, unsurpassed in powers 
of flight, and usually strong swimmers; excepting the sea-runners, none of them 
dive. With the same exception, the wings are long, strong and pointed, of 10 stiff 
primaries and numerous short secondaries ; the humeral and ante-brachial portions 
are sometimes extremely lengthened. The tail is short or moderate, of less than 
20 feathers, of variable shape. The feet are usually short, with long full-webbed 
front toes, and a rudimentary hallux, as above stated, or none. In size, these birds 
vary remarkably, ranging from that of a swallow up to the immense albatrosses, 
probably unsurpassed by any birds whatever in alar expanse, and yielding to few 
in bulk of body. The plumage is compact-and oily, to resist water; the sexes 
appear to be always alike, and no seasonal changes are determined ; but some color 
variation with age, or according to individual peculiarities, certainly occurs in most 
cases, and in the Puffin, for instance, in which some currently admitted species are 
uniformly fuliginous, it is not proven that this feature is not temporary, as in the . 
jaégers. The food is entirely of an animal nature, and fatty substances, in partic- 
ular, are eagerly devoured ; when irritated, many species. eject an oily fluid from the 
mouth or nostrils, and some are so fat they are occasionally used for lamps, by 
running a wick through the body. The eggs are few, or only one, laid in a rude 
nest, or none, on the ground or in a burrow. Petrels are silent birds, as a rule, 


PROCELLARIIDH, ALBATROSSES.—GEN. 296-7. 325 


contrasting with gulls and terns in this particular; many or most are gregarious, 
congregating by thousands at their breeding places or where food is plenty. 
Birds of this family abound on all seas; but the group is yet imperfectly known. 
Bonaparte gave 69 species, in 1856 ; my memoirs upon the subject (1864-6) present 
92, of which 17 are marked as doubtful or obscure ; last year, Gray recorded 112; 
there are probably about seventy good species. They are sharply divided by the 
character of the nostrils into three groups; two represented in North America, as 
beyond, and the Halodromine. These last, consisting of one genus and three species 
or varieties, are remarkably distinguished from the rest, resembling auks in external 
appearance and habits ; the wings and tail are very short; there is no hind toe; the 
skin of the throat is naked and distensible ; the tubular nostrils, in fact, are the prin- 
cipal if not the only petrel-mark, and these organs are unique in opening directly 
upward, the nasal tube being vertical instead of horizontal as in all the rest. 


Subfamily DIOMEDEINZ. Albatrosses. 


Nostrils disconnected, placed one on each side of the bill near the base. No hind 
toe. Of largest size in this family. There are eight unquestionable species, with 
two or three doubtful or obscure ones. Only three have proven their right to a place 
here. As Mr. Lawrence observes (Bp., 821), there is no well authenticated instance 
of the occurrence of the great wandering albatross, D. exulans, off our coasts; but 
it has been taken in Europe, and is liable to appear at any time. It is distinguished 
from the first species following by its great size, and the outline of the frontal 
feathers : deeply concave on the culmen, strongly convex on the sides of the bill to a 
point nearly opposite the nostrils. The yellow-nosed albatross, D. chlororhyncha of 
AUDUBON, Vii, 196 ; Lawn. in Bp., 822, is the D. culminata, a species of Australian 
and other Southern seas, said to have been taken ‘‘not far from the Columbia river,” 
but there is no reason, as yet, to believe it ever comes within a thousand miles of 
this country. It has the bill black with the culmen and under edge yellow. Other 
well known species of Southern seas are D. chlororhyncha, cauta and melanophrys. 


296-7. Genus DIOMEDEA Linneus. 
*Sides of under mandible smooth; bill very We 
stout, moderately compressed, with rounded 
culmen, the feathers running nearly straight 
around its base. Wing three or more times as *& 
_long as the rounded tail. (Diomedea.) 
Short-tailed Albatross. Bill 5 or 6 inches 
long, with moderately concave culmen and 
prominent hook. Tail very short, contained 
about 34 times in the wing. Length about FIG. 207. Short-tailed Albatross. 
3 feet; extent 7; wing 20 inches; tail 53; tarsi 32. Adult plumage white, 
with a yellowish wash on the head and neck; primaries black ; other quills, 
the wing coverts and tail feathers, marked with blackish ; bill and feet pale. 
Young dark colored, resembling the next species. Off the Pacific Coast, 
abundant. Cass., Ill. 289, pl. 50; Lawr. in Bp., 822. . . BRACHYURA. 
Black-footed Albatross. Bill about 4 (never 5) inches long, extremely 
stout, with the culmen almost perfectly straight to the hook, which is com- 


326 PROCELLARIIDZ, PETRELS. 


paratively small and weak ; the horny piece forming the culmen very broad, 
especially at base, where it overlaps the lateral piece ; depth of bill at base 
14, its width there 14. Tail contained about 3 times in the wing. General 


dimensions of the last species, or rather less; tail longer. Adult plumage — 


dark brown, paler and grayer, or rather plumbeous below, lightening or 
even whitening about the head; quills black with yellow shafts; bill dark; 
feet black. A final plumage may be lighter than as described, but is never 
white; and other characters seem to prove the validity of the species. 
Pacific Coast, very abundant. Avp., vii, 198; ScuteceL, M. P.-B., Pro- 
cellarie, 33; SwinuHor, Ibis, 1863, 431; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 
178; Cass, Us e2to, 
pl. 35. D. gibbosa 
GOULD? . NIGRIPES. 
** Sides of under 
mandible with a long 
colored groove; bill 
comparatively slender, 
strongly compressed, 
with sharp  culmen; 
frontal feathers forming 
a deep reéntrance on 
the culmen, a_ strong 
salience on the sides of 
the lower mandible. 
Wing about twice as 
long as the cuneate 
tail. (Pheebetria.) 
Sooty Albatross. Fuliginous brown, nearly uniform, in some cases lighten- 
ing on various parts; quills and tail blackish with white shafts; eyelids 
white; bill black, the groove yellow; feet yellow. Length about 3 feet; 
wing 20-22 inches ; tail 10-11, its graduation 34-44; tarsi 3; bill 4-43, at 
base 14 deep, but only ? wide. D. fusca Aup., vii, 200, pl. 454; D. fuli- 
ginosa Lawn. in Bp., 823 ; Phebetria fuliginosa Cours, |. c. 186. FULIGINOSA. 


Fic. 208. Sooty Albatross. 


Subfamily PROCELLARIINA. Petrels. 


Nostrils united in one double-barrelled tube laid horizontally on the culmen at 
base. Hallux present, though it may be minute. Five groups of petrels may be 
distinguished, although they grade into each other; four of them are abundantly 
represented on our coasts. The fulmars are large gull-like species (one of them 
might be taken for a gull were it not for the nostrils), usually white with a darker 
mantle, the tail large, well formed (of 14-16 feathers), the nasal case prominent, 
with a thin partition. They shade into the group of which the genus _2strelata is 
typical, embracing a large number of medium sized species, chiefly of Southern 
seas, in which the bill is short, stout, very strongly hooked, with prominent nasal 
case ; the tail rather long, usually graduated. The shearwaters have the bill longer 
than usual, comparatively slender, with short low nasal case, obliquely truncate at 
the end, and the partition between the nostrils thick; the tail short and rounded ; 


— 


_to swim little if any, and some, if not all, breed in 


PROCELLARIIDZ, PETRELS.— GEN. 298-300. 327 


the wings extremely long; the feet large. The elegant little ‘‘ Mother Carey’s 
chickens” or ‘“‘stormy petrels” (genus Thalassidroma of authors; gen. 303-8, 
beyond) are a fourth group, marked by their small size, slight build, and other 
characters ; their flight is peculiarly airy and flick- 

ering, more like that of a butterfly than cf eidinary os 
birds ; they are almost always seen on wing, appear \\\) 


holes in the ground, apparently like bank-swallows. 
Like other petrels they gather in troops about \ 
yessels at sea, often following their course for many \, 
miles, to pick up the refuse of the cook’s galley. N 
Some of them, like gen. 307, have remarkably long S S = 
legs, with fused scutella, flat obtuse claws, and the - 
hallux exceedingly minute ; in the rest, the feet are 

of an ordinary character. The exotic genus Prion typifies a fifth group, of five 
or six species ; here the bill is expanded, and furnished with strong lamine, like a 
duck’s ; the colors are bluish and white. 


Fig. 209. Stormy Petrel (Leach’s). 


298-300. Genus FULMARUS Leach. 

* Tail 16-feathered ; bill longer than the tarsus. (Ossifraga.) 

Giant Fulmar. The largest of the petrels, equalling most of the alba- 
trosses in size; length 3 feet; extent 7; wing 20 inches; tail 8; bill 4, the 
nasal case nearly 2. Plumage dark dingy gray, paler below, often whitening 
in places; bill and feet yellow. Pacific Coast; “common off Monterey” 
(Cooper). Nurtr., ii, 329; Aup., vii, 202; Lawr. in Bp., 825. GIGANTEUS. 

** Tail 12—14-feathered ; bill not longer than the tarsus. (Fulmarus and Priocella.) 

Fulmar. Bill obviously shorter than the tarsus. Adult white, the mantle 
pale pearly blue, frequently extending on the neck and tail; quills blackish- 
brown ; usually a dark spot before the eye; bill yellow, feet the same tinged 
with greenish. Young: smoky gray, paler below, the feathers of the back 
and wings dark-edged; colors of bill and feet obscured. Length usually 
about 164, but from 15 to 18; wing 11-13; tail 4-5; tarsus about 2; bill 
14-13, about ? deep and almost as wide at base; nasal tubes 2. Extraor- 
dinarily abundant in the North Atlantic; S. to U.S. in winter. Nutt., ii. 
331; Aup., vil, 204, pl. 455; Lawr. in Bp., 825. . . . . GLACIALIS. 

Var. paciricus will probably average considerably darker on the mantle, with a 
weaker bill. N. Pacific Coast. . Aup., vii, 208; Lawr. in Bp., 826; Cours, Proc. 
Phila. Acad. 1866, 28. 

Var. ropcErsiui. The mantle dark, as in pacificus, but much restricted, most of 
the wing coyerts and inner quills being white ; primaries mostly white on the inner 
webs, their shafts yellow. A particular condition of the last variety? N. Pacific 
Coast. Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 290; Couns, ibid. 1866, 29; Bp., Trans. 
Chicago Acad. i, 323, pl. 34, f. 1. 

Slender-billed Fulmar. Bill little if any shorter than the tarsus. © Adult 
white, with pearly blue mantle; primaries pearly whitish basally, white- 
tipped, crossed with definite black, much as in a herring gull; usually a small 
dark spot before the eye; feet yellow; bill yellow, obscured on the tube, at 


328 PROCELLARIIDH, PETRELS.—GEN. 301, 302, 303, 304. 


tip, and often at base. Changes of plumage as in the foregoing ; size the same, 
but bill 2 long, scarcely # wide or high at the base, the tube about % long. 
Pacific Coast; only casual? P. tenuirostris Aup., vii, 210; Lawr. in Bp., 
826; P. glacialoides Smirn; Thalassoica 
glacialoides Reton. ; Cougs, /. c. 80; P. 
smithti ScuueceL; Priocella garnoti 
Hos. and JacQ. . . TENUIROSTRIS. 


301. Genus DAPTION Stephens. 

Pintado_Petrel. Cape Pigeon. 
Speckled above with blackish and white ; 
white below ; tail black-barred; bill black; 15; wing 11; tail 44; bill 14; 
tarsus 13. Accidental on the Coast of California. Lawr., Ann. Lyc. 
N. Y. 1853, 6, and in Bp., 828.  . |. 6) 2 5. 


Fic. 210. Slender-billed Fulmar. 


302. Genus AISTRELATA Bonaparte. 


Black-capped Petrel. Adult: forehead, sides of head, neck all round, 
upper tail coverts, base of tail and all under parts, white ; back clear bistre- 
brown (nearly uniform, but the feathers often with paler or ashy edges), 
deepening on the quills and terminal half of tail; crown with an isolated 
blackish cap, and sides of head with a black bar (younger birds with the 
white of the head and neck behind restricted, so that these dark areas run 
together) ; bill black; tarsi and base of toes and webs, flesh-colored (drying 
yellowish) ; rest of toes and webs black. Young extensively dark below? 
Length 16; wing 12; tail 54, cuneate, its graduation 14: tarsus 12; middle 
toe and claw 24; bill 12, 3 deep at base, 2 wide; tube $. Of casual occur- 
rence on the Atlantic Coast, U.S. PP. hesitata Kunu, Monog. 142, No. 11; 
Temm., Pl. Col. No. 416; Newton, Zool. x, 1852, p. 3691; Scuune., M. 
P.-B. 13; 2. hesitata Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 139 ; P. meridionalis 
Lawe., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. iv, 475; v. 220, pl. 15; in Bp., 827. HaisimavA: 


3803. Genus HALOCYPTENA Coues. 


Wedge-tailed, or Least Petrel. Blackish, more fuliginous below, the 
greater wing coverts more grayish, the quills, tail, bill and feet black; no 
white anywhere. Length 52; wing 43; tail 25, cuneate, the graduation 4; 
bill 4, its height at base +; tarsus .90; tibi& bare 4. Lower California; 
one specimen known (No. 11, 420, Mus. Smiths. Inst.). Cours, Proc. 
Phila. Acad. 1864, 79; Exuror, pl. 61. . . . . : . . MGEOsomme 


304. Genus PROCELLARIA Linneus. 


Stormy Petrel. Mother Carey’s Chicken. Coloration of the last species, 
but upper tail coverts white, with black tips, and usually some white under 
the tail and wings; no yellow on the webs; tail a little rownded. About the 
size of the last. Common off the Atlantic Coast. Nurt., ii, 327; Aup., 
vii, 228, pl. 461 ; uawe. in Bp.,.83109 . . 7. <2 2. Oe Bee 


PROCELLARIIDE, PETRELS.—GEN. 305, 306, 307. 329 


305. Genus CYMOCHOREA Coues. 


Leach’s Petrel. Coloration as in the last species, with conspicuous white 
upper tail coverts, but apt to be lighter—rather of a grayish or even 
ashy tint on some parts. Much larger: length about 8; wing 6-63; tail 
3-34, forked; tarsus about 1; middle toe and claw the same; bill %, strong. 
Both coasts; abundant on the Atlantic. P. leucorrhoa Viritu., Nouv. Dict. 
xxv, 422; C. leucorrhoa Cours, lJ. c. 76. Thal- 
assidroma leachii Nutr., ii, 326; Aup., vii, 219, 
pl. 459; Lawr. in Bp., 830. . . LEUCORRHOA. 

Black Petrel. Coloration as in the last species, 
but no white anywhere. Very large; 9; extent 
183; wing 62; tail 4, forked an inch or more; 


tarsus 14; bill 2. Coast of California. Pro- Fic. 211. Black Petrel. 
cellaria melania Bonar., Compt. Rend. 1854, 662; C, melania Cougs, 
[. e. 76 (described from No. 13,025, Mus. S. I.).. . . . MELANIA. 


Ashy Petrel. Somewhat similar to the last, like it having no white any- 
where, but plumbeous rather than fuliginous, and much smaller. Length 
about 74; wing about 5; tail 34, forked about $ an inch; tarsus under an 
inch; bill $. California. Thalassidroma melania Lawre. in Bp., 829, pl. 90 
(nec Bonap.). C. homochroa Cours, 1. ¢. 77; Exuior, pl. 87. HOMOCHROA. 


306. Genus OCEANODROMA Reichenbach. 


Fork-tailed Petrel. Bluish-ash, paler below and on the greater wing 
coverts, dusky around the eye; quills and tail brownish, outer web of the 
external tail feather white; bill black; feet dark. Length about 8; wing 
6; tail 33, forked; bill 3; tarsus §. N. Pacific Coast, common. Cass., 
eee, pl. 47; Lawe.in Bp., 829. . . . » . “FURCATA. 

Hornby’s Petrel. “Front, checks throat, collar round ana part of neck, 
breast and abdomen, pure white,” quills black, other parts dark gray. Size 
of the last. N.W. coast. I have never seen this species, of which there are 
not to my knowledge any specimens in this country. Thalassidroma hornbyi 
Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853, 62; Lawre. in Bp., 829. . . . HORNBYI. 


307. Genus OCEANITES Keys. and Blas. 


Wilson’s Petrel. Dark sooty brown, pale gray on the wing coverts; the’ 
upper tail coverts, and frequently the crissum and sides of rump and base of 
tail, white; bill and feet black, but webs with a yellow spot. Legs very 
long ; tibiz bare an inch or more ; tarsi “booted,” much longer than the toes ; 
claws flat, obtuse; bill small and weak; hind toe very minute, liable to be 
overlooked. Length 7-8; wing about 6; tail 3, nearly even; tarsus 14; 
middle toe and claw 14; bill only 4. Atlantic Coast, common. Proc. 
oceanica Kun, Monog. 136, pl. 10, f. 1; Oceanites oceanica Cours, 1. c. 
82; Proc. pelagica Wits., vii, 90, pl. 60, f. 6; Thalassidroma wilsoni 
Norr., ii, 322; Aup., vii, 223, pl. 460; Lawr. in Bp., 831. .. OCEANICA. 


KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 42 


330 PROCELLARIIDA, PETRELS.—GEN. 308, 309-10. 


308. Genus FREGETTA Bonaparte. 


White-bellied Petrel. Blackish-gray of variable intensity, blackening on 
the quills and tail, the whole under parts from the breast, the upper tail 
coverts, most of the under wing coverts, and bases of all the tail feathers 
except the middle pair, white; bill and feet black. Length about 8; wing 
6-64; tail 3, about even, with very broad, square-tipped feathers; bill 4; 
tarsus 14; longest toe (outer) and claw 1 or less; tibize bare 1 or more. 
Florida, accidental, one instance (Lawr. Ann. Lye. N. Y.v,117). Procel- 
laria grallaria Vinitu. Procellaria fregetta Kuni, and many authors. 
Thalassidroma leucogastra Goutp. Fregetta lawrencitt Bonar.; Lawrk., in 
Bp., 832 (unquestionably this species). . . . . . . . GRALLARIA. 


309-10. Genus PUFFINUS Brisson. 

* Nasal tubes vertically truncate, with thin septum. (Priofinus.) 

Black-tailed Shearwater. Upper parts cinereous, nearly uniform, but 
some of the feathers with paler edges; under parts white, without line of 
demarcation from the color of the upper parts ; tail, crissum and vent blackish ; 
lining of wings, axillars, and some feathers on the sides of the body, 
brownish-cinereous ; quills blackish-cinereous on outer webs and tips, paler 
internally and basally, with brown shafts; bill yellow, the nasal case, culmen 
as far as the hook, cutting edge and groove of lower mandible, black; feet 
(dried) dingy greenish with yellow webs. Large; 19; wing 13; tail 5-52, 
wedge-shaped, 12-feathered, the outer feathers an inch or more shorter than 
the middle; bill 14, high at base, the nasal tubes nearly 4; tarsus 22; 
middle toe and claw 2%. Accidental off the coast of California. A peculiar 
species, very different from any of the following, approaching the fulmars. 
Proc. cinereus GM.? Proc. melanura Bonn. Proc. hesitata Forst., Descr. 
Anim. 1844, 208; Gouxp, B. Aust. pl. 67; Puffinus hoesitatus Lawr., Ann. 
Lye. N. Y. vi, 5. Proc. adamastor Scutecen. -Adamastor typus Bona. 
Puffinus cinereus Lawr. in Bp., 835; Adamastor cinereus Cours, Proc. 
Phila. Acad. 1864, 119; Priofinus cinereus Cours, Proc. Essex Inst. v, 303. 
Pufinus kuhlii Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 327 (err.). . MELANURUS. 

** Nasal tubes obliquely truncate, with thick septum. (Puffinus.) 

+ Below, white or nearly so, the upper parts different. 

Cinereous Shearwater. Above, pale brownish-ash, interrupted by paler 
or white edges of the feathers, most of the upper tail coverts white ; below, 
entirely pure white, except some slight gray touches on the flanks; on the 
sides of the head and neck the ash and white gradually mingling; lining of 
wings and axillars white; quills dark with large white spaces on the inner 
webs; bill and feet mostly yellowish. Younger birds are darker, the bill 
and feet obscured. Length about 18 ; wing 14; tail 54, outer feathers nearly 
an inch shorter; bill 13, 3 high at base, nasal tube only about } its length ; 
tarsus 1f; middle toe and claw 24. A common bird of the North Atlantic, 
not hitherto introduced into our fauna. Proc. kuhlii Bon, Isis, 1835, 


PROCELLARIIDE, PETRELS.— GEN. 309-10. 331 


257. Pufinus kuhlii Bonar., Consp. Av. ii, 202; Cours, Proc. Phila. 
Acad. 1864, 128. (Proc. cinereus GM.?) . . . . . . « KUHLI. 

Greater, or Wandering Shearwater. Dark bistre-brown, somewhat plum- 
beous on the head, most feathers of the back and wings with pale edges, most 
upper tail coverts partly white; below, white, with a plain line of demar- 
eation from the color of the upper parts on the side of the head and fore neck, 
and dark flank patches; quills and tail blackish, paler or whitish at bases 
of inner webs; lining of wings mostly white; crissum mostly dark; dill 
dark; outside of tarsi and outer toe dark, rest of feet pale. Length 18-20 ; 
extent 45; wing 13; tail 53, outer feathers an inch less; bill 2; tarsus 22; 
middle toe and claw 2%. Whole Atlantic coast, abundant. P.cinereus Nurr., 
li, 334; Aup., vii, 212, pl. 456; P. major Lawr. in Bp., 833. . Magor. 

Flesh-footed Shearwater. Similar to the last; no white on upper or under 
tail coverts or bases of quills; bill yellowish flesh color, with dark tube, cul- 
men and hook, short, very stout at base, with turgid tube; feet flesh color. 
Size of the last, but bill only 13, height or width at base nearly 3; tarsus 
24; middle toe and claw 23. San Nicholas Island, Cal. (No. 31,964, Mus. 
Smiths. Inst.). A doubtful species; I have little faith in its validity, but 
cannot refer it to any species known to me; it looks like one of the following 
section (f+) passing to a bicolor plumage. Cougs, /.c. 131. . CREATOPUS. 

Manks Shearwater. Blackish, this color extending below the eyes, 
leaving the under eyelid white ; under parts, including crissum and lining of 
wings, white; bill greenish-black; outside of foot mostly blackish, inner 
side dingy orange; about 15; extent 33; wing 93; tail 4, graduated 2; bill 
14-14, but nearly 4 deep at base; tarsus under 2; middle toe and claw 2 or 
rather less. Very distinct from the rest. N. Atlantic Coast, common. 
Notr., ii, 336; Aup., vii, 214, pl. 457; Lawr. in Bp., 834. ANGLORUM. 

Dusky Shearwater. Resembling the last, but rather grayish- or plum- 
beous-black, the dark color not reaching below the eyes; crissum mostly 
white; bill dark leaden-blue; much smaller and otherwise distinct. Length 
about a foot; extent 26 inches; wing 74-8; tail 44, graduated an inch; bill 
14; tarsus 12; middle toe and claw under 2. S. Atlantic Coast, as far as 
the Middle States, common. Nort., ii, 837; Avp., vii, 216, pl. 458; 
Lawre. in Bp., 835. ET a er ei OBSCURUS. 

Black-vented Shearwater. Like the last; crissum and lining of wings 
mostly blackish; sides of head dark below the eyes; rather larger; bill 12; 
wing 9; tail 33, thus shorter; tarsus 14; middle toe and claw 23. Cape 
St. Lucas (Nos. 16,990-1, Mus. Smiths. Inst.). Seems to be distinct from 
the last, but may be the same as an exotic species of prior name. Cougs, 
Peet, Acad, 1864, 1359. . .. . . «.» w+... « .OPISTHOMELAS. 


+f Below, dark, much like the upper parts. 


Sooty Shearwater. Dark sooty brown, blackening on the quills and tail, 
paler and grayish below, usually with some whitish on the lining of the 
wings; bill dark; feet dark outside, pale on the inner aspect. Length 18; 
extent 40; wing 12; tail 4; bill 13-2; tarsus 21-24; middle toe and claw 


332 PYGOPODES, DIVING BIRDS. 


24. North Atlantic, abundant; S. at least to Carolina (Coues). A special 
state of P. major? Srrickuand, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1832, 129; DrKay, 
New York Birds, 287, pl. 136, f. 298; Lawr. in Bp., 834; Cougs, 
= 5 Proc. Phila. Acad. 1864, 

123. . FULIGINOSUS. 
Dark-bodied Shear- 
water. Similar to the 
last; feet flesh color, 
slightly obscured out- 
side; lining of wings 
\ mostly white; smaller ; 
FIG, 212. Sooty Shearwater. wing Lig etc. Cape St. 

Lucas. Very doubtful. I allow this, and several others, to stand, because 
it is still uncertain what reduction of the species of this genus will prove 
necessary. Nectris amaurosoma Couns, l. c. 124. . . . AMAUROSOMA. 
Slender-billed Shearwater. Plumage as in the foregoing; size less; tail 
shorter; bill smaller. Bill dusky-greenish, with yellow; feet yellowish, 
blackish behind and under the webs. Length about 14; wing 10; tail 
34, graduated an inch; bill 14; tarsus under 2; middle toe and claw 2%. 
N. Pacific Coast. Trmm., Planches Color. No. 587; Tremm. and Scut., Fn. 
Japon. 131, pl. 86; Bonap., Consp. Av. ii, 202; Couss, J. c. 126; Barrp, 
Trans. Chicago Acad. i, 1869, 322, pl. 34, f. 2. WP. tristis, curilieus and 
brevicauda of authors? . 9. «0. 2. te we 


Order PYGOPODES. Diving Birds. 


In the birds of this order the natatorial plan reaches its highest development. 
All the species swim and dive with perfect ease; many are capable of remaining 
long submerged, and of traversing great distances under water, progress being 
effected by the wings as well as by the feet. Few other birds, such as cormorants 
and anhingas, resemble the Pygopodes in this respect. ‘The legs are so completely 
posterior, that in standing the horizontal position of the axis of the body is impos- 
sible; the birds rest upright or nearly so, the whole tarsus being often applied to 
the ground, while the tail affords additional support ; progression on land is awkward 
and constrained, only accomplished, in most cases, with a shuffling motion, when 
the belly partly trails on the ground. The penguins, and one species of auk, cannot 
fly —the former, because the wings are reduced to mere flippers with scaly feathers, 
the latter because the wings, although perfectly formed, are too small to support 
the body. The rest of the order fly swiftly and vigorously, with continuous wing- 
beats. The rostrum varies in shape with the genera; but it is never extensively 
membranous, nor lamellate, nor furnished with a pouch. The nostrils vary, but are 
neither tubular nor abortive. The wings are short, never reaching when folded to the 
end of the tail, and often not to its base. The tail is short, never of peculiar shape, 
generally of many feathers; there are, however, no perfect rectrices in the grebes. 
The crura are almost completely buried, and feathered nearly or quite to the heel. 
The tarsus is usually compressed, sometimes, as in the loons, extremely so; in the 
penguins, on the contrary, it is much broader across than in the opposite direction, 
being nearly as wide as long. The front toes are completely palmate in the loons, 


PYGOPODES, DIVING BIRDS. 333 


auks and penguins, lobate with basal webbing in the grebes; the hallux is present 
and well formed, with a membranous expansion, in loons and grebes, very minute 
and lateral in position in the penguins, wanting in the auks. The plumage is thick 
and completely water-proof; once observing some loons under peculiarly favorable 
circumstances in the limpid water of the Pacific, I saw that bubbles of air clung to 
the plumage whilst the birds were under water, giving them a beautiful spangled 
appearance. The pterylosis shows both contour and down-feathers, both after- 
shafted ; in the penguins the feathers are implanted evenly over the whole skin; in 
the rest there are definite apteria; the auks have free outer branches of the inferior 
tract-bands, wanting in the loons and grebes. The oil-gland is large with several 
orifices. Among osteological characters should be particularly mentioned the long 
apophysis of the tibia found in the loons (fig. 8) and grebes, but not in the auks 
and penguins: in the latter, the patella is of great size, and it is stated to develop 
from two centres. In penguins and auks, the elbow has two sesamoids ; among the 
former, there is a free ossicle in the heel joint. The thoracic walls are very exten- 
sive ; the long jointed ribs grow all along the backbone from the neck to the pelvis, 
and form with the long broad sternum a bony box enclosing much of the abdominal 
viscera as well as those of the chest, perhaps to prevent their undue compression 
under water. The top of the skull has a pair of crescentic depressions for lodg- 
ment of a large gland; the palate is schizognathous. The sternum has a different 
shape in each of the families. ‘There are two carotids, except among the grebes. 
The digestive system shows minor modifications, but accords in general with the 
piscivorous regimen of the whole order. The sexes are alike; the young different ; 
the seasonal changes often great. A part of the order are altricial, the rest 
precocial. There are four families of Pygopodes, sharply distinguished by external 
characters ; three of them are represented in this country. The penguins (Sphen- 
iscide) are confined to the seashores of the southern hemisphere. This group is 
well marked by the solidity of the skeleton, and the flatness of most of the bones, 
with many peculiar osseous details; by a very special ptilosis, both in the lack of 
tracts, and the structure of the feathers themselves, many of which are curiously 
seale-like ; by the completely posterior set of the legs with extremely short tarsus, 
and especially, among external features, by the reduction of the wings to mere 
paddles, lacking specially formed remiges, unserviceable for flight, but highly 
efficient as fins to aid progress under water. There are twelve species of penguins, 
referable to three or four genera. One of the most singular facts in ornithology is, 
that some species of penguin do not lay their egg in a nest in the ordinary way, 
but carry it about with them in a pouch temporarily formed by a fold of the 
abdominal integument (Verreaux) ; thus affording a wonderful analogy to marsu- 
pial mammals. The author’s monograph of the Spheniscide will be found in the 
Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy, of the present year. 


Family COLYMBIDA. Loons. 


Bill stout, straight, compressed, tapering, acute, paragnathous, entirely horny. 
Nostrils narrowly linear, their upper edge lobed. Head completely feathered, the 
antiz prominent, acute, reaching the nostrils; no crests nor ruffs. Wings strong, 
with stiff primaries and short inner quills. Legs completely posterior, buried, 
feathered on to the heel-joint ; tarsi entirely reticulate, extremely compressed, the 
back edge smooth; toes four, the anterior palmate, the posterior semilateral and 
having a lobe connecting it with the base of the inner. Tail short, but well formed, 


334 COLYMBIDAE, LOONS.—GEN. 311. 


of many feathers. Back spotted. Loons are large heavy birds with broad flattened 
body and rather long sinuous neck, abundant on the coasts and larger inland waters 
of the Northern Hemisphere ; they are noted for their powers of diving, being able 
to evade the shot from a gun by disappearing at the flash, and to swim many 
fathoms under water. They are migratory, breeding in high latitudes, generally 
dispersed further south in winter. They are precocial, and lay two or three dark- 
colored spotted eggs in a rude nest of rushes by the water’s edge. The voice is 
extremely loud, harsh and resonant. The 9? is smaller than the ¢. There is but 
one genus, with only three well-determined species. ~ 


311. Genus COLYMBUS Linneus. 


Great Northern Diver, or Loon. Black; below from the breast white, 
with dark touches on the sides and vent; back with numerous square white 
spots; head and neck iridescent with violet and green, having a patch of 
sharp white streaks on each side of the neck and another on the throat ; 
bill black. Young: 
dark gray above, 
the feathers with 
paler edges ; below 
white from the bill, 
the sides dusky ; 
bill yellowish-green 
and dusky. Length 
23-3 feet; extent 
about 4 ; wing about 

; 14 inches; tarsus 3 
Fic. 213. Great Northern Diver. or more; longest 
toe and claw 4 or more; bill 3 or less, at base 1 deep and 4 wide; the 
culmen, commissure and gonys all gently curved. N. Am., abundant; 
the whole U.S. in winter. Wus., ix, 84, pl. 74, f.3; Nurr., ii, 513; 
Aup., vii, 282, pl. 476; Lawr: in Bp., 888... = 2 2 teR@pmrmee 

Var. apAmsu. Yellow-billed Loon. Similar; larger; spots on the back larger, 
not so nearly square; gloss of the neck rather steel-blue, the white patches smaller, 
but the individual streaks larger; bill mostly yellowish-white, nearly 4 long, higher 
and comparatively narrower at the base, the gape straight, the culmen and gonys 
nearly so (fig. 213 shows the shape exactly, although intended for the common 
species). Northwestern America, chiefly; England; Asia. Gray, Proc. Zool. 
Soc. 1859, 167; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 227; Exxror, pl. 63. 

Black-throated Diver. Back and under parts much as in the last species ; 
upper part of head, and hind neck, bluzsh-ash or hoary gray; fore neck 
purplish-black with a patch of white streaks, the dark color ending abruptly ; 
bill black. The young resemble those of that species, but will be known 
by their inferior size. Length under 23 feet; extent about 3; wing 
13 or less; tarsus 3; bill about 24. N.Am. and N. Europe; said to be 
common and generally dispersed throughout the U.S. in winter, which is 
contrary to my experience. Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 475; Nurt., ii, 
517; Avp., vii, 295, pl. 477; Lawn. in Bp., 888... . . = AR@meue: 


PODICIPIDH, GREBES. 335 


Var. pactricus. Colors the same; size less; length about 2 feet; wing about 
11; tarsus 21; bill 2-2}, very weak and slender. Northwestern Am., abundant 
on the Pacific Coast of the U. S. in winter. Lawr. in Bp., 889; Covss, l. c. 228. 


Red-throated Diver. Blackish; below white, dark along the sides and on 
the vent and crissum; most of head and fore neck bluish-gray, the throat 
with a large chestnut patch; hind neck sharply streaked with white on a 
blackish ground; bill black. Young have not these marks on the head and 
neck, but a profusion of small, sharp, circular or oval white spots on the back. 
Size of the last, or rather less. N. Am. and N. Europe, common; dispersed 
over most of the U.S. in winter. Sw. and Rica., F. B.-A. ii, 476; Nurr., 
ii, 519; Aup., vii, 299, pl. 478; Lawr. in Bp., 890... SEPTENTRIONALIS. 


Family PODICIPIDA:. Grebes. 


Bill of much the same character as that of loons, but generally weaker, in one 
genus only quite stout and somewhat hooked. Nostrils linear, linear-oblong or 
oval, not lobed. Head incompletely feathered, with definitely naked lores, the 
feathers not reaching the nostrils; commonly adorned in the breeding season with 
lengthened gayly-colored crests, ruffs, or ear-tufts. Back not spotted; under 
plumage peculiarly silky and lustrous, usually white. Wings very short and con- 
cave, the primaries often attenuated at the end, covered by the large inner quills 
when closed. Tail a mere tuft of downy feathers, without perfectly formed rectrices. 
Feet lobate, the front toes also semipalmate; tarsi compressed, scutellate, their 
hinder edge rough with a double row of protuberant scales; toes flattened; claws 
short, broad, flat, obtuse, something like human nails. 

The grebes are strongly marked by the foregoing characters, especially of the 
feet and tail, though they agree closely with the loons in general structure and 
economy. Principal internal characters are the absence, it is said, of one carotid, 
the greater number of cervical vertebre (19 instead of 13) and shortness of the 
sternum, with lateral processes reaching beyond the transverse main part (the 
reverse of the case in loons). The gizzard has a special pyloric sac. These birds 
are expert divers, and have the curious habit of sinking back quietly into the water 
when alarmed, like anhingas. Owing to the virtual absence of the tail the general 
aspect is singular, rendered still more so by the almost grotesque parti-colored ruffs 
and crests that most species possess. These ornaments are very transient; old 
birds in winter, and the young, are very different from the adults in breeding attire. 
The eggs are more numerous than in other pygopodous birds, frequently numbering 
6-8 ; elliptical, of a pale or whitish color, unyariegated ; commonly covered with 
chalky substance. The nest is formed of matted vegetation, close to the water, or 
even, it is said, floating among aquatic plants; the young swim directly. Grebes 
are the only cosmopolitan birds of the order, being abundantly distributed over the 
lakes and rivers of all parts of the world, though they are less maritime than 
the species of either of the other families. There are not over twenty well deter- 
mined species, for which fifteen generic, and about seventy specific, names are 
recorded. The genera requiring recognition are only two. In Podilymbus, the bill 
is short, stout, and bent at the end, the lores are broadly naked, the frontal feathers 
are bristly and there are no ruffs or crests ; in all the rest of the grebes the bill is 
slender, straight and more or less acutely paragnathous, the naked loral strip 
is narrow, and the soft feathers of the head form lengthened tufts of various kinds. 


336 PODICIPIDH, GREBES.—GEN. 312-4. 


312-4. Genus PODICEPS Latham. 


* Large, with very long neck; bill very slender and sharp-pointed, longer than 
the head, straight or almost recurved; tarsus as long as the middle toe and claw. 
No colored ruffs at any season? (#chmophorus.) 

Western Grebe. Length about 30; extent 36; wing 8-9; bill and tarsus, 
each about 3. Above, blackish-gray, with paler edges of the feathers, 
blackening on the hind neck and top of the 
head, the loral region gray; quills ashy- 

®) brown, bases of the primaries and most of 
# the secondaries white; below, from bill to 
tail, pure silky white, with dark touches 
on the sides; bill obscurely olivaceous, 
brighter along the edges and at tip. Adult 
FIG. 214. Western Grebe. in the breeding season with a short occipital 
crest, and slight indications of a ruff; but no brightly colored feathers on the 
head or neck as yet observed. Pacific Coast, U.S., abundant. P. occidentalis 
Lawre. in Bp., 894 ;_ chmophorus occidentalis Cours, 1. c. 229. OCCIDENTALIS. 


Var. crarki. Similar; loral region white; bill bright yellow, the ridge black, 
shorter, slenderer, extremely acute and almost recurved ; smaller; length 2 feet or 
less; wing 7; tarsus 22; bill 24. Same habitat. Lawr. in Bp., 895; Cours, 
l.c. 229 and 404. *,* The foregoing species has been united with the ordinary 
bird of Central and South America (P. major, cayennensis, bicornis and leucopterus) 
by Dr. Schlegel. This seems premature, but it may be required if occidentalis 
proves to assume the red neck and other coloration of major. 

** Medium, with moderately long neck; bill not longer than the head, shorter 
than the tarsus, moderately stout and acute; tarsus shorter than the middle toe 
and claw. Conspicuous crests, ruffs or tufts, in the breeding season. (Podiceps.) 

Crested Grebe. Tarsus equal to the middle toe without its claw; bill 
equal to the head, about # the tarsus; crests and ruff highly developed. 
About 24; extent 34; wing 73-83; bill 2-23; tarsus 24-23. Adult: throat 
and sides of head white changing to brownish-red on the ruff, which is tipped 
with black; fore part and sides of neck like the ruff; top of head and long 
occipital tufts dark brown, as are the upper parts generally, the feathers of 
the back pale-edged; primaries brown, part of them and nearly all the 
secondaries white; under parts silky silvery white, without dark mottling, 
but the sides dark-marked. Young: without any lengthened colored feathers 
on the head or neck. N. Am. at large; U.S. in winter, but not nearly so 
common as the next species. Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A, ii, 419; Nurr., ii, 
250; Aup., vii, 308, pl. 479; Lawr. in Bd., 893. P. cooperi Ip., zbid. ; 
Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 230. ?P. affinis Satvapor1; ELLioT, 
Introd. No. 98, with figure of head. . . . . =. =. . . GBISTATUS: 

Red-necked Grebe. Tarsus about * the middle toe-and claw; bill little 
shorter than tarsus; crests and ruff moderately developed. Medium; length 
about 18; wing 7-8; bill 13, to nearly 2; tarsus 2; middle toe and claw 2§. 
Adult: front and sides of the neck rich brownish-red ; throat and sides of 


PODICIPIDA, GREBES.—GEN. 312-4. 337 


head ashy, whitening where it joins the dark color of the crown, the feathers 
slightly ruffed; top of head with its slight occipital crests, upper parts 
generally, and wings, as in the last species, but much less white on the inner 
quills; lower parts pale silvery-ash, with dark sides (noé pure white, but 
watered or obscurely mottled, sometimes obviously speckled, with dusky) ; 
bill black, more or less yellow at base. The young will be recognized by 
these last characters, joined with the peculiar dimensions and proportions. 
N. Am.; common in the U. S. in winter. P. rubricollis Sw. and Ricu., F. 
- B.-A. ii, 411; Nutr., ii, 253; Aup., vii, 312, pl. 480; P. griseigena Lawr. 
in Bp., 892; P. holbélli Rerinnarpt; Cougs, /. c. 231. Our bird appears 
to differ constantly from the European in being larger, with the bill dispro- 
portionately large, and differently colored. . GRISEIGENA var. HOLBOLLH. 

Horned Grebe. Tarsus about equal to the middle toe without its claw; 
bill much shorter than head, little more than half the tarsus, compressed, 
higher than wide at the nostrils, rather obtuse ; crests and ruffs highly devel- 
oped. Small; length about 14; extent 24; wing 6 or less; bill about }; 
tarsus 14. Adult: above, dark brown, the feathers paler-edged; below, 
silvery-white, the sides mixed dusky and reddish; most of the secondaries 
white ; fore neck and upper breast brownish-red ; head glossy black, including 
the ruff; a broad band over the eye, to and including the occipital crests, 
brownish-yellow ; bill black, yellow-tipped. The young differ as in other 
species, but are always recognizable by the above measurements and propor- 
tions of parts. N. Am., abundant. Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 411; Nurr., 
204; AuwD., vii, 316, pl. 481; Lawr.in Bp., 895. . . . . CORNUTUS. 

Eared Grebe. Proportions substantially the same as in the last species ; 
size rather less; bill shorter and more acute, depressed, wider than high at 
the nostrils. Adult: above, blackish-brown, the feathers with scarcely or 
not paler edges; below silky-white, reddish along the sides; all the prima- 
ries chocolate-brown, most of the secondaries white; head and neck all 
round black, the auriculars lengthened into a rich golden-brown tuft, but no 
obyious crests or ruff. Young: known from the last by the different shape of 
the bill. Arctic America, chiefly western ; common in the Pacific States in 
winter; has not been observed in the Atlantic States. P. auritus Nurt., 
li, 256; Aup., vii, 322, pl. 482; P. californicus HeERMANN, Proc. Phila. 
Acad. 1855, 179, and Pac. R. R. Rept. x, Cala. Route, pl. 8 (young) ; 
Lawe. in Bp., 896; Couns, 7. c. 231. All the American specimens I have 
seen, differ from the European ones examined, in having less white on 
ea ek CU CCUSCSC.:CSt«:SCAURRITUS Var. CALIFORNICUS.- 

*** Very small; bill much shorter than the head, 2 or less of the tarsus; 
tarsus about ? the middle toe and claw. No colored crests or ruffs. (Sylbeocyclus.) 

St. Domingo Grebe. Adult: top of head deep glossy steel-blue; rest of 
head and neck ashy-gray, deepest behind, the throat with whitish; upper 
parts brownish-black, with greenish gloss; primaries chocolate-brown, 
a great part of most of them, and all the secondaries, pure white; under 
parts silky-white thickly mottled with dusky. Length 9}; wing 33; bill 3; 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 43 


338 ALCIDH, AUKS.—GEN. 315. 


tarsus 14; middle toe and claw 13%. Central America, West Indies and 
_ Mexico, Texas, Southern Colorado, Lower California. Sylbeocyclus domi- 
nicus COUES, t. 6.232... . (se) ee nn 


315. Genus PODILYMBUS Lesson. 


Pied-billed Grebe. Dab-chick. Dipper. Diedapper. Water-witch. 
Length 12-14; wing about 5; bill 1 or less; tarsus 14.. Adult: Dill 
bluish, dusky on the ridge, encircled with a black bar; throat with a long 
black patch ; upper parts blackish-brown ; primaries ashy-brown, secondaries 
ashy and white ; lower parts silky-white, more or less mottled or obscured 
with dusky; the lower neck in front, fore breast and sides, washed with 
rusty. Young: lacking the throat patch and peculiar marks of the bill, 
otherwise not particularly different ; in a very early plumage with the head 
curiously striped. N. Am:, very abundant. Nurtv., ii, 259; Aup., vil, 
324, pl. 483; Lawr. in Bp., 898: 2... ... «-. % Sue 


Family ALCIDA. Auks. 


Feet three-toed, palmate. Bill horny, non-lamellate, of extremely variable shape, 
often curiously appendaged; nostrils variable, but not tubular. Wings and tail 
short; tarsi shorter than the middle toe and claw. Form heavy, thickset. 

Birds of this family will be immediately recognized by the foregoing circum- 
stances, taken in connection with general pygopodous characters. Agreeing closely 

== == === in essential respects, they siemens 
themselves to a remarkable degree in the 
| form of the bill, with every genus and 
=| almost every species; this organ frequently 
{| assuming an odd shape, developing horny 
| processes, showing various ridges and 
| furrows, or being brilliantly colored. It 
is the rule that any soft part that may be 
observed on the bill will finally become 
hard, or form an outgrowth, or both; and 
such processes, in some cases at least, are 
temporary, appearing only during the 
breeding season. The bill, besides, varies 
greatly with age, in size and shape, often 
showing at first little trace of its adult 
| character. In gen. 316-7 the bill is high, 
compressed, with curved vertical colored 
grooves, the nostrils densely feathered ; in 
318-23, the feathers are remote from the 
nostrils, and the bill reaches its maximum 
of diversity and singularity of contour; 
in the rest, the bill is of simpler shape, 

Fig. 215. Great Auk. usually conico-elongate, with more or less 
perfectly feathered nostrils. The general coloration is simple; but many species 
develop very remarkable frontal or lateral crests; the sexes are alike; the 
young different; seasonal changes are almost always strongly marked. 


ALCIDZ, AUKS.—GEN. 316, 317. 339 


The family is confined to the Northern Hemisphere, where it represents the pen- 
guins of the Southern; several species occur in the North Atlantic, in almost 
incredible numbers, or are of circumpolar distribution; but the majority, including 
all the stranger kinds, inhabit the North Pacific ; some range as far south, in winter, 
at Feast as the Middle States and Lower California. They are all marine; feed on 
fish and other animal substances, exclusively ; lay 1-3 eggs on bare ledges, in rifts 
of rocks, or in burrows; and are altricial. The voice is hoarse; the flight swift 
and firm, performed with vigorous rapid wing-beats; one species is deprived of 
flight owing to the shortness of the wings, although these members are well formed 
with perfect remiges; all swim and dive with great facility. They are eminently 
gregarious, and mostly migratory. All the species are represented in this country. 
The number of species given by Brandt in 1837 (Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Petersburg), by 
Cassin in 1858 (Baird’s B. N. A.) and by myself in 1868 (Proc. Phila. Acad.), must 
be materially reduced, as Brandt himself has since shown (op. cit. 1869), and as 
I now admit. Only twenty-one are unquestionably valid. 


316. Genus ALCA Linneeus. 


Great Auk. Coloration as in the next species, but a large white area 
before the eye; length about 30; wing 6; tail 3; bill 3, along gape 4, its 
depth 1%. Nortrt., ii, 553; Avup., vii, 245, pl. 465; Cass. in Bp., 900. 
Special interest attaches to this bird, which is now on the point of extinction, 
largely through human agency. It formerly inhabited this coast from Massa- 
chusetts northward, as attested by earlier observers, and by the plentiful 
occurrence of its bones in shell-heaps; also, Greenland, Iceland, and the 
N. W. shores of Europe, to the Arctic Circle. On our shores it was appar- 
ently last alive at the Funks, a small island off the S. Coast of Newfound- 
land; while in Iceland, its living history has been brought down to 1844. 
Of late years, it has been currently, but, as it appears, prematurely, reported 
extinct. Mr. R. Deane has recently recorded (Am. Nat. vi, 868) that a 
specimen was “found dead in the vicinity of St. Augustine, Labrador, in 
November, 1870;” this one, though in poor condition, sold for $200, and 
was sent to Europe. I know of only four specimens in this country —in 
the Smithsonian Institution, in the Philadelphia Academy, the Cambridge 
Museum, and in Vassar College, Poughkeepsie (the latter the original of 
Audubon’s figures). There is an egg in each of the first two mentioned 
collections. About 60 skins appear to be preserved in various museums. 
See Sreenstrup, Viddensk. Meddel., Copenhagen, 1856-7,. 33-116; 
Newton, Ibis, 1862, p.—; Couns, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1868, 15; Orron, 
DE ll tel Cle Cl te eS) 6UEMPENNIS. 


317. Genus UTAMANIA Leach. 


Razor-billed Auk. Tinker. Brownish-black, browner on the head and 
throat; under parts from the throat (in summer; from the bill in winter, 
and in young), tips of secondaries, and sharp line from bill to eye, white ; 
bill black with a white curved line; mouth yellow; 16-19; wing 7-8; tail 
3-34, graduated 1 or more; tarsus 1-14; bill 14, along gape 24, nearly 1 
deep. N. Atlantic, extremely abundant on rocky shores and islands with 


340 ALCIDZ, AUKS.—GEN. 318-9. 


murres, puffins and gannets; egg generally single, and deposited in a rift of 
rocks; 3X2, white or whitish variously speckled and blotched with brown. 
Comes S. in winter to the Middle States. N. Pacific, casually. Nurv., 
ii, 547; Avup., vii; 247, pl. 466; Cass. in Bp., 901; Couns; Tends; 
and op. cit. 13861, 2497 aie sy as oo 8 ee tel 


318-9. Genus FRATERCULA Brisson. ' 

* Not crested; eyelids appendaged; under mandible suleate, like the upper, 
the grooves convex forward; culmen simple, with one curve; base of bill bossed ; 
corners of mouth callous. Blackish, including the throat, the sides of the head 
ashy-gray, with dusky maxillary patches (whole face dusky in the young) ; EO: 
white ; bill red, blue and yellow; feet red. (Fratercula.) 

Horned Puffin. A slender sharp spur on upper eyelid. Black of throat 
reaching the bill. 144; wing 74; tail 22; bill 2; tarsus 14. N. Pacific; 
not authentic on our Atlantic Coast. Mormon glacialis Aun., vii, 236, pl. 
463; M. corniculata Cass. in Bp., 902; Cours, J. c. 24. . CORNICULATA. 

Common Puffin. Sea Parrot. <A thick blunt excrescence on eyelids. 
Black of throat not reaching the bill. 133; wing 63; tarsus 1; bill 2, depth 
at base 14. N. Atlantic, breeding in vast numbers, in burrows ; egg 25X13, 


Fic. 216. Common Puffin. 


broadly ovoid, rough-granular, white or whitish, more rarely brownish, 
obsoletely or not at all variegated. §S. in winter to the Middle States (to 
Georgia, Audubon). Nutr., ii, 542; Aup., vii, 238, pl. 464; Cass. in 
Bp., 903 ;. Couns, /. c. 21, and op. cit. 1861, 251. ... .. > aemmemee 

Var. GLActIALis, from the Arctic Coasts, is rather larger, especially the bill, 
which is about 24 long, 14-13 deep at base. Cass. in Bp., 903; Covusgs, l. c. 28. 

** Adult with a long flowing crest of filamentous feathers on each side of the 
head ; eyelids simple; under mandible smooth, upper sulcate, the grooves concaye 
forward ; culmen with two.curves, the basal part bossed. (Lunda.) 

Tufted Puffin. Blackish, duller and more fuliginous below; face white ; 
crests straw-yellow; bill red and livid; feet red. Young not crested, face 
not white, and at an early age the undeveloped bill has a different shape, 
represented in fig. 217 (this 7s Sagmatorhina lathami Br., Proc. Zool. Soe. 
1851, 202, pl. 44; Couns, 7. c. 31; S. labradora Cass. in Bp., 904; Exu., 


ALCIDZ, AUKS.—GEN. 320, 321. 341 


pl. 66. See Branpr, 7. c. 244). Length 15-16; wing 73-8; tail 2; 
tarsus 14; bill 24, nearly 2 deep. N. Pacific, abundant; S. to Cala. in 
winter; rare or casual on the 
Atlantic (Maine, Aud.). Mor- 
mon ctrrhatus Nutt., ii, 539; 
AuD., vii, 234, pl. 462; Cass. 
im Bp., 902. . =. OIRRHATA. 


820. Genus CERATORHINA 
Bonaparte. 


Horn-billed Auk. Glossy 
blackish, below  ashy-gray, 
breast and belly white. Adult 
with two series of stiffish lan- 
ceolate white feathers on each Fic. 217. Undeveloped bill of very young Tufted Puffin. 
side of the head, and a stout upright horn at base of culmen; immature 
birds without these lateral crests, and with soft membrane, more or less 
bulging, in place of the horn; some specimens ( ¢ ?) in perfect plumage 
have no trace of a horn (C. suckleyi Cass. in Bp., 906; Sagmatorrhina 
suckleyi Couss, l. c. 32; see Exxior, Introd. No. 102, with figs. ; Branpr, 


= 


se 


id 
aon 
FiGs. 218-21. Various stages of the bill of Horn-billed Auk. 
l.c. 239. Figs. 218-21 show several conditions). Length 153; wing 74; 
tail 24; tarsus 14; bill 14, including horn; nostril to top of horn sometimes 
%. Pacific Coast to Cala.; breeds S. to the Farallones. Uria occidentalis 


AuD., vii, 264, pl. 471; Nurr., ii, 538; Cerorhina monocerata Cass. in 
Bo., 905; Ceratorhyncha monocerata Cours, |. c. 28. . . MONOCERATA. 


321. Genus PHALERIS Temminck. 
Parroquet Auk. Bill smooth; upper mandible oval, under falcate, rictus 
recurved. JBlackish, below paler, gray, white, or varied; adult with a 
series of filamentous white feathers behind each eye; bill red, yellow-tipped. 


342 ALCIDH, AUKS.—GEN. 322. 


9; wing 53; tarsus 1; bill 3. N. Pacific. The curious bill is used to 
pry open bivalve mollusks (Brandt). Nurr., ii, 534; Ombria psittacula 
Cass. in Bp., 910; Stmorhynchus psittaculus Cougs, 
l.c. 36; Exuror, pl. 70. <a eee roma 


> 
322. Genus SIMORHYNCHUS Merrem. 
Crested Auk. Adult in summer: blackish, paler 
and grayish below. A recurved frontal crest of ~ 


12-20 narrow feathers, dark ; a bundle of lengthened Fic. 222. Parroquet Auk. 

filamentous feathers over and behind each eye, white. Bill red, yellow-tipped, 
with singularly irregular rictus, sides of lower mandible wholly naked, and 
a horny development at the commissural angle. Phaleris cristatella Aun., 
vii, 253, pl. 467 ; Cass. in Bp., 906 ; Simorhynchus cristatellus Cours, 1. ¢. 38. 


Fic. 223. Crested Auk: adult in summer. Fic. 224. Crested Auk: immature. 


Fig. 223. In winter, bill dark, without the horny plate: Uria dubia PAtt. ; 
Simorhynchus dubius Cours, l. c. 40. Younger birds with a white spot 
under the eye, base of lower mandible feathered, gape straighter, and no 
horny plate at the angle. Alcea tetracula Pau. ; Phaleris tetracula Cass. in 
Bo., 907; Stimorhynchus tetraculus Cougs, l. c. 43 ; Exxiot, pl. 67. Fig. 224. 
See Branpt, /. c. 224. All the foregoing stages show the crest, but it is 
wanting in very young birds. Length about 9 ; wing 54; tail 13; tarsus under 
1; bill4. N. Pacific; not abserviad inU.S. cCRISTATELLUS. 

Whiskered Auk. Similar; smaller; wo series 

"A (postocular and maxil- 


f ® lary) of filamentous white 
feathers on each side of 

head; bill smaller, never 

irregular. Very young: 

Vv blackish-plumbeous, paler 


below, no crest, bill dark 
(S. cassint Cours, 1. ¢. 
Fig. 225. Whiskered Auk: adult. Fic. 226. The same, young. 45 ; Bp., 4 ee Chicago 
Acad. i, 324, pl. 81, f. 2; Alca pygmea Gmu.?). N. Pacific. Phaleris 
camtschatica Cass. in Bp., 908; Simorhynchus camtschaticus Cours, 1. ¢. 
41; Uria mystacea Patt; Mormon superciliosum LicuT. CAMTSCHATICUS. 


ALCIDE, AUKS.—GEN. 323, 324, 325. 343 


Kinob-billed, or Least Auk. Very small; under 7; wing 4 or less; tarsus 
2; bill 2. No crest, but white hair-like feathers on forehead and often about 


eyes. Blackish, with ——_~.. 
more or less white on a © 
seapulars; below white, © 


pure or much varied with 
dusky; Dill of adult in. = / © 
summer with a little Be 

_knobat base. N. Pacific. 
Phaleris nodirostris Fic. 227. Knob-billed Auk: adult. Fic. 228. The same, young. 
AvD. Vii, 255; pl. 468; P. microceros BRanpT ; Cass. in Bp., 908 ; S. micro- 


ceros Cougs, /. c. 46. Uria pusilla Pati; P. pusilla Cass. in Bp., 909; S. 
pusillus Exu., pl. 68 ; Cours, /. c. 49 (young or winter specimens). PUSILLUS. 


323. Genus PTYCHORHAMPHUS Brandt. 


Aleutian Auk. Blackish-cinereous, paler below, white on breast and 
belly; no long feathers about head; bill conic, acute, about 2 the head, 
wrinkled at base, nostrils scaled; 9; wing 5; tarsus 1; bill ?, 2? deep at 
base, $ wide. Pacific Coast to L. Cala. Cass. in Bp., 910; Extior, pl. 
69; Cours, 7. c. 52. Mergulus cassint GAMBEL. . . . . ALEUTICUS. 


ej 324. Genus MERGULUS Auctorum. 


Sea Dove, or Dovekie. Glossy blue-black, 
below from the breast (in winter, and in young, 
from the bill) white; scapulars white-striped ; 
secondaries white-tipped ; white speck over eye ; 
bill black, short, obtuse, turgid. 84; wing 43; 
tarsus +; bill 4, about 4 deep or wide at base. N. Atlantic, abundant, S. 
in winter to New Jersey (to Florida, Maynard). Wuus., ix, 94, pl. 74, f. 
So; Nort, u, 531; Aovp., vii, 257, pl. 469; Cass. in Bp., 918. . Aux. 


© 


Fic. 229. Sea Dove. 


325. Genus SYNTHLIBORHAMPHUS Brandt. 


*,.* Tarsi much compressed, broadly scutellate in 
front and on the sides, not shorter than middle toe 
without its claw; bill compressed, shorter than head or 
tarsus; nostrils broadly oval, reached by feathers. 

. f f Fic, 230. Black-throated 
Length 94-11; extent 161-181; wing 5-51; tail12; bill Guillemot. 
2-2; tarsus 1. Head and neck black or blackish, with white stripe over eye 
and numerous others on nape and side of neck; upper parts and sides under the 
wings black or blackish-plumbeous; other under parts white, from the throat in 
summer, from the bill in winter, and in young birds. 

Black-throated Guillemot. Not crested. White superciliary stripe not 
running in advance of the eye. Bill stout, obtuse, at base $ or more of the 
length of culmen, pale, culmen and base black. N. Pacific. OUria senicula 
Patt. Mergulus cirrhocephalus Vicors. Uria antiqua Aun., vii, 263, pl. 


344 ALCIDZ, AUKS.—GEN. 326, 327. 


470, f. 1 (fig. 2, of supposed young, is B. kittlitzii) ; Brachyrhamphus 
antiquus Cass. in Bp., 916; S. antiquus Couns, 1. ¢., 56. Brachyrhamphus 
brachypterus BRANDT; Cass. in Bp., 917; Cours, J. c. 67. . . ANTIQUUS. 

Temminck’s Guillemot. Adult in the breeding season crested. White 
superciliary stripe advancing far in front of the eye. Bill slenderer and more 
acute, scarcely or not 4 as deep at base as long, yellow, with black on culmen. 


Fic. 231. Temminck’s Guillemot. Adult. Fig. 232. Temminck’s Guillemot. Young. 


Young (and adult each winter?), uncrested, bill black; above nearly 
uniform cinereous, below entirely white except along the sides: this is 
Brachyrhamphus hypoleucus Xantus; Cours, 1. c. 64; Exuior, pl. 72; 
Uria cravert Satvapor1; CovsEs, /. c. 66; Exuior, Introd. No. 172, with 
fig. of head. Whole Pacific Coast to Cape St. Lucas, abundant. J. tem- 
minckit Cass. in Bp., 916; S. wurmizusume Cours, 1. c. |§WURMIZUSUME. 


326. Genus BRACHYRHAMPHUS Brandt. 


* .* Tarsi little compressed, entirely reticulate, obviously shorter than the middle 
toe without its claw; bill shorter than head, very slender and acute, with inflected 
tomia; nostrils minute, overlaid by feathers. No crest. 

Marbled Guillemot, or Murrelet. Adult in summer blackish, singularly 
variegated with chestnut or rusty, and white; bill black; adult in winter 
plumbeous, the feathers with darker centres, the scapulars and entire under 
parts, excepting some dark touches on the flanks, pure white. Length 
9-10; wing 5; tail 14; tarsus and bill ¢ or less. Pacific Coast to Cala. 
Uria townsendii Aup., vii, 278, pl. 475 (winter and summer, not old and 
young as supposed) ; Uria marmorata Nutt., ii, 525; B. marmoratus Cass. 
in Bp., 915; Cougs, 7. c. 61; B. wrangeli Branpt; Cass. in Bp., 917; 
Cougs, /. c. 63 (winter, not different species as supposed) . MARMORATUS. 

Kittlitz’s Murrelet. Described as differing from the foregoing by its much 
shorter bill (only 1 along gape), deeper at base, and lateral tail feathers 
white, black-striped lengthwise. N. Pacific. Unknown to me; no recognized 
specimens in American collections. . kittlitzii Branpt, 1837, 346; 1869, 
213; Cass. in Bpo., 917. Brandt holds that Audubon’s fig. 2 of pl. 470 
represents this species. ?Uria brevirostris Vicors, Zool. Journ. vi, 1827, 
357; Voy. Blossom, 32.2.5 905 Wee 2 on ea 


327. Genus URIA Brisson. 


*,* Tarsi entirely reticulate, little, if any, shorter than middle toe without its 
claw ; bill straight, smooth, about equal to tarsus ; nostrils incompletely feathered ; 


ALCIDH, AUKS.—GEN. 327, 328. 345 


outer claw smooth ; tail contained less than 3 times in length of wing. In summer, 
black, with white on wings or head; in winter, largely white; bill black, feet red. 
Length 12-15; wing 53-73; tarsus 1}-14; = 
bill 14-12. 
Black Guillemot. Sea Pigeon. A ©) 
large continuous white area on both 
upper and under surface of the wing, 
(rarely imperfect or wanting); head and 
neck with greenish gloss; tail feathers 
12; wing 54-64; bill rather acute. Fig. 233. Black Guillemot. 
N. Atlantic, very abundant, S. in winter to New Jersey. Eggs laid in 
fissures of rock, 2 (3?) in number, 23X13 in size, nearly elliptical in 
shape, greenish-white, variously blotched 
with brown and purplish. Arctic Seas ; 
© rare or casual in the N. Pacific? Nurrt., 
oe li, 523; AuD., vii, 272, pl. 474; Cass. 
Saxe Bp., 911. Couss, 7. c. 68; and op. 


CHeelSmleneOO. . « «  « « GRYLLE- 
Pigeon Guillemot. A large white area 
FIG. 234. Pigeon Guillemot. on upper surface of wings only, partly 


divided by a black line; head and neck with opaque ashy shade; tail 

feathers 14 (always?) ; bill rather obtuse ; size rather greater, wing about 7. 

N. Pacific. Cass. in Bp., 912; Cougs, J. c. 72. fet tae (COLUMBAS 
Sooty Guillemot. No white on 

the wings, but usually whitish 

patches on the head. Larger; >) 

wing nearly 8; bill 13-12. North 

Pacific. Cass. in Bp., 913, pl. 97; 


emer e. ic. . . . CARBO. ZZ 
328. Genus LOMVIA Brandt. ee 
* .*Tarsi scutellate in front, much Fic. 235. Sooty Guillemot. 


shorter than middle toe without claw; bill with decurved commissure, much longer 
than tarsus, its end, and the outer claw, grooved; nostrils feathered; tail gradu- 
ated, contained more than 3 times in the length of wing. Size and coloration 
almost exactly as described under Utama- 
nia, but no white line from bill to eye. 
Common Guillemot, or Murre. 
Depth of bill at nostrils not nearly 4 
the length of culmen; tomia of upper 
mandible at base feathered, not notice- 
ably dilated, nor brightly colored. In 
Hig. 236. Common Guillemot. some cases, edges of eyelids, and line 

behind eye, white. N. Atlantic, Arctic and Pacific coasts, S. to New Jersey 
and California; breeding in myriads on rocky islands. Egg single, on bare 
ledges; 3-34 long, by 1{-24 broad; the ground color varying from white 

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 44 


346 ALCIDZ, AUKS.—GEN. 328. 


to dark green; sometimes perfectly plain, usually fantastically streaked or | 
blotehed in interminably varying pattern. Sw. and Riog., F. B.-A. tise 
477; Nutt., ii, 526; Aup., vii, 267, pl. 473 ; Uria lomvia and ringvia Cass. — 
in Bo., 913, 914; Lomvia troile and L. ringvia Covss, 1) ¢."75>,) 760mm 
Pacific specimens have a somewhat different] y shaped bill, constituting var. 
californica Bryant, Proc. Bost. ‘Soe: N. 
H. 1861, p. 11; Cours, 7.c.79. tTRomn. 
Thick-billed, or Briinnich’s Guillemot. 
eee Depth of bill at nostrils about $ “the 
length of culmen; tomia of upper man- 
dible at base dilated, denuded, usually 
yellowish. Distribution as in the last. 
FIG. 237. Thick-billed Guillemot. species. Uvria briinichii Sw. and Ricu., 
F. B.-A. ii, 477; Nurt., ii, 529; Aup., vii, 265, pl. 472; U. arra Cass. in 


Bn., 914; Lomvia svarbag Coves, 1.-¢. 80. . . . = ee 


Fic. 238. Muryres.. 


SYNOPSIS OF THE FOSSIL FORMS, 


There is at present no satisfactory evidence of the existence of Birds in this 
country earlier than the Cretaceous period. The footprints in the sandstone of 
the Connecticut Valley, which have been attributed to Birds, were probably all 
made by Dinosaurian Reptiles. 

The species which have been described from the Cretaceous formation are nearly 
all known only from fragmentary remains. Those from the Tertiary and Post- 
tertiary are generally represented by better preserved specimens. 

The following synopsis has been revised by the accomplished paleontologist 
who has described nearly all the known species. Through his courteous atten- 
tions, the list has been completed to the date on which these pages go to press. 
This first connected account of the Extinct Birds of North America will unques- 
tionably be very largely supplemented by future discoveries. Work in this field 
of research was never more actively and successfully prosecuted than at present, 
and new species are almost continually being brought to light. 


PICARIZ:. 


UINTORNIS LUCARIS Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, iv, 259. Oct., 1872. 

This bird was about as large as a robin, and apparently related to the 
Woodpeckers. The only known remains are from the Lower Tertiary 


formation of Wyoming Territory. They are preserved in the museum of 
Yale College. 


RAPTORES. 


AQUILA DANANA Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, ii, 125. August, 1871. 

This species was nearly as large as the Golden Eagle (A. chrysaétos). 
The only known remains were found in the Pliocene of Nebraska, and are 
now in the Yale museum. 


BUBO LEPTOSTEUS Marsh. 
American Journal of Science, ii, 126. August, 1871. 
A species about two-thirds as large as the Great Horned Owl (B. virgin- 
ianus). ‘The remains were discovered in the Lower Tertiary beds of 
Wyoming, and are also in the Yale museum. 


GALLIN ZA. 


MELEAGRIS ANTIQUUS Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, ii, 126. August, 1871. 

This species was nearly as large as the Wild Turkey (1. gallopavo). 
The remains representing it were found in the Miocene of Colorado, and 


are preserved in the Yale museum. 
(347) 


348 FOSSIL BIRDS. 


MELEAGRIS ALTUS Marsh. 

Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy, 11. March, 1870. — American 
Naturalist, iv, 317. July, 1870.— American Journal of Science, iv, 260. Oct., 
1872. (M. superbus Cope. Synopsis Extinct Batrachia, etc., 239.) 

“Represented by portions of three skeletons, of different ages, which 
belonged to birds about the size of the Wild Turkey, although proportionally 
much taller. The tibise and tarso-metatarsal bones were, in fact, so elon- 
gated as to resemble those of wading birds.” From the Post-pliocene of 
New Jersey. The remains are mostly in the museum of Yale College. —~ 


MELEAGRIS CELER Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, iv, 261. Oct., 1872. 

A species much smaller than the foregoing, but with legs of slender pro- 
portions. Also from the Post-pliocene of New Jersey, and preserved in 
the Yale museum. 


GRALLATORES. 
GRUS HAYDENII Marsh. 
American Journal of Science, xlix, 214. March, 1870. 
A species about as large as the Sandhill Crane (G‘. canadensis). From 


the Pliocene of Nebraska. Remains preserved in the museum of the Phila- 
delphia Academy. 


GRUS PROAVUS Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, iv, 261. Oct., 1872. 

This species was nearly as large as a Sandhill Crane. The remains repre- 
senting it were found in the Post-pliocene of New Jersey, and are now in 
the Yale museum. 


ALETORNIS NOBILIS Marsh. 
American Journal of Science, iv, 256. Oct., 1872. 


Nearly as large as the preceding species. Found in the Eocene deposits 
of Wyoming, and now in the museum of Yale College. 


ALETORNIS PERNIX Marsh. 
American Journal of Science, iv, 256. Oct., 1872. 


About half the size of the above, and from the same locality. Also in 
the Yale museum. 


ALETORNIS VENUSTUS Marsh. 
American Journal of Science, iv, 257. Oct., 1872. 


A smaller species, about as large as a Curlew (umenius). From the 
same locality, and likewise in the Yale museum. 


ALETORNIS GRACILIS Marsh. 
American Journal of Science, iv, 258. Oct., 1872. 


A bird about the size of a Woodcock (Philohela minor). From the same 
formation and locality, and now preserved in the museum of Yale College. 


. 
. 


FOSSIL BIRDS. 349 


ALETORNIS BELLUS Marsh. 
American Journal of Science, iv, 258. Oct., 1872. 


A still smaller species, probably belonging to a different genus. From 
the same locality, and also in the Yale museum. 


TELMATORNIS PRISCUS Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, xlix, 210. March, 1870. 

A species about as large as the King Rail (2tallus elegans), and probably 
allied to the Rallide. From the Cretaceous formation. Found near Horn- 
erstown, New Jersey, and preserved in the Yale museum. 


TELMATORNIS AFFINIS Marsh. 
American Journal of Science, xlix, 211. March, 1870. 


A somewhat smaller species from the same formation and locality. Also 
in the museum at Yale. 


PALZOTRINGA LITTORALIS Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, xlix, 208. March, 1870. 

About equalling a Curlew in size. The remains were found in the Creta- 
ceous green-sand, at the above mentioned locality, and are now preserved 
at Yale. 


PALZOTRINGA VETUS Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, xlix, 209. March, 1870. 

A smaller species, from the same formation, found at Arneytown, New 
Jersey. The known remains are in the Philadelphia Academy. 


PALZHOTRINGA VAGANS Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, iii, 365. May, 1872. 

Intermediate in size between the two preceding species. Discovered in 
the same formation, near Hornerstown, New Jersey ; now in the museum 
of Yale College. 

NATATORES. 
SULA LOXOSTYLA Cope. 

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, xiv, 236. Dec., 1870. 

A species not so large as the common Gannet (S. bassana). From the 
Miocene of North Carolina. Remains preserved in Prof. Cope’s collection. 


GRACULUS IDAHENSIS Marsh. . 

American Journal of Science, xlix, 216. March, 1870. 

A typical Cormorant, rather smaller than G’. carbo. From the Pliocene 
of Idaho. Most of the known remains are deposited in the Yale museum. 


GRACULAVUS VELOX Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, iii, 363. May, 1872. 

This bird was related to the Cormorants, and was rather smaller than 
Graculus carbo. The remains were found in the green-sand of the Cretaceous 
formation, near Hornerstown, New Jersey, and are now at Yale College. 


350 FOSSIL BIRDS. 


GRACULAVUS PUMILUS Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, iii, 364. .May, 1872. 

A smaller species, from the same formation and locality. The remains 
are in the Yale museum. 


GRACULAVUS ANCEPS Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, iii, 364. May, 1872. 

Apparently a species of Cormorant, about as large as Giraculus violaceus. 
From the Cretaceous of Western Kansas. Remains in the Yale College 
museum. 


ICHTHYORNIS DISPAR Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, iv, appendix, 344. Oct., 1872. 

A bird about as large as a pigeon, and differing from all known birds in 
having biconcave vertebre. ‘The remains were found in the Cretaceous ‘shale 
of Kansas, and are in the museum of Yale College. 


PUFFINUS CONRADII Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, xlix, 212. March, 1870. 

A shearwater about the size of P. cinereus. From the Miocene of Mary- 
land, and now preserved in the museum of the Philadelphia Academy. 


CATARRACTES ANTIQUUS Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, xlix, 213. March, 1870. 

A Guillemot rather larger than the Common Murre (Lomvia troile). From 
the Miocene of North Carolina. Deposited in the Philadelphia Academy. 


CATARRACTES AFFINIS Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, iv, 259. Oct., 1872. 

A species about as large as the preceding, and nearly related. From the 
Post-pliocene of Maine. The original specimen is in the Philadelphia 
Academy. 


HESPERORNIS REGALIS Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, iii, 360. May, 1872. 

This bird was a gigantic Diver, related to the Loons (Colymbide). The 
skeleton measured about five feet nine inches in length. The known remains 
were found in the upper Cretaceous shale of Western Kansas, and are now 
in the Yale museum. 


LAORNIS EDVARDSIANUS Marsh. 

American Journal of Science, xlix, 206. March, 1870. 

This species was nearly as large as a Swan. The remains were discovered 
in the Middle Marl bed, of Cretaceous age, at Birmingham, New Jersey, 
and are now in the museum of Yale College. 


wan 


ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 


INTRODUCTION, passim. For Order Scansores read zygodactyle birds. 

P. 9, §19.—The Phenicopteride were not considered as belonging to Lamellirostres when 
the fourth sentence of this paragraph was penned. 

P. 22, last two lines. For 117 read 123; for 177 read 176; dele 154; insert 149, 151, 189, 
222-3-4, 230. , 

P. 30, last line but one. For no read a. (This important error is also repeated in fig 6, 
where the phalanx in question is omitted.) : 

P. 35, eighth line. After in insert nearly. 

P. 38, end of ninth line from bottom. After Strisores insert of some authors. 

P. 39, tenth line. After no insert perfect. 

P. 47, § 81, tenth line. After (307) insert and a species of Accipiter (156). 

P. 49, § 86, fourth line. After 1t insert when present. Next line, after 2t, insert when 
developed. 

P. 55, third line. After belongs to the read: family Picide, of the sub-order Pici, of the 
order Picarie. 

P. 58. Among “abbreviations used” insert ; —1. c., locus citatus —the place (of a work) 
just cited. op. cit., opus citatum—the work just cited. 

P. 59. Among ‘works referred to” insert ; — Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii. Swainson, W., 
and Richardson, J.; Fauna Boreali-Americana. Vol. ii. 4to. 1831. 

P. 61. After Hydrochelidon, for 292 read 293; after Haliplana, for 293 read 292. 

P. 63. For Giorris 215, Sympyemia 214 and Ruyacopuinus 216, read ToTANus 214-6. 

P. 63. For Furrx 260, and Ayruya 261, read FULIGULA 260-1. 

P. 75. Curve-billed Thrush. Specimens lately received indicate that the Arizona bird 
constitutes a variety of H. curvirostris: the following is a better description than that given 
in the text. — Var. palmeri Ripaw. Ms. Above, grayish-brown, nearly uniform; wing 
coverts and quills with slight whitish edging, the edge of the wing itself white; tail feathers 
with slight whitish tips; below, a paler shade of the color of the upper parts, the throat 
quite whitish, the crissum slightly rufescent, the breast and belly with obscure dark gray 
spots on the grayish-white ground; no obvious maxillary streaks, but vague speckling on 
the cheeks; bill black; feet blackish-brown; bill 1}; wing 44; tail 5; tarsus 14; middle toe 
and claw 1}. (Described from 61589, Mus. Smiths. Inst., Tucson, Arizona, Bendire. ) 

P. 77. Kennicott’s Sylvia. Add to the quotation: Tristram, Ibis, 1871, 231. 

P. 85. Allied Creeper Wren. In all probability distinct from the preceding species. 

P. 87. Alaskan Wren. May be best treated as a variety of the Winter Wren; and this 
last may be considered as Anorthura troglodytes var. hyemalis. 

P. 122. Plumbeous Vireo. Additional material shows that most probably this is a variety 
of V. solitarius, as intimated in the text. 

P. 129. For Genus Curvirostra Scopoli read Genus Loxta Linneeus. The Red Crossbill 
may be considered as var. americana of the European Loxia curvirostra. 


(351) 


ya) 2 ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. | 


P. 130. Gray-crowned Finch. It is hardly necessary to recognize by name more than one 
variety of this bird—‘‘campestris” being referred to tephrocotis proper, and ‘‘littoralis 
var. griseinucha. 

P. 135. Baird’s Bunting. As very strongly hinted in the text, the supposed specimens 
Centronyx bairdii from Massachusetts are not this species at all, but a Passerculus, apparently 
new. (P. princeps Maynarp, Am. Nat. vi, 1872, p. 637). Although perfectly aware of this 
time of writing, I refrained from anticipating publication of the fact. I venture to foretell 
that a second specimen of ‘‘ Centronyx” will never be found. ' 

P. 136. St. Lucas Sparrow. Doubtless only a variety of P. rostratus. : =; 

P. 140. Good authority contends for the specific validity of Peucea cassinii, but I am, 1not a 
prepared to yield my position. nih jae , 
P. 147. It may be as well to allow Passerella townsendii to stand as a species, until its” 
intergradation with éliaca is proven. P. schistacea goes with townsendii as a slight variety. 

P. 174, first line. or features read feathers. =e a4 lt i 

P. 183. Vaua’s Swift. Iam more inclined to doubt its validity. 

P. 186. Linné Hummingbird. The implication is, that the specimen accredited io Mi 
chusetts came from a dealer’s stock, in exchange for a specimen of 7. colubris spoilt in stuffing. 

P. 207. Ferrugineous Owl. To the extralimital specimens described, add:—No. 61585, s ao 
Mus. Smiths. Inst., from Tucson, Arizona, since transmitted to me by Lt. C. Bendire, U. S. mae “a 
It is the specimen of which some fragments furnished my note in the American Naturalist, as 
quoted in the text. 

P. 213. Gyrfalcon. The specimens from the Mackenzie’s river region, noticed by Baird 
(1. c.) under name of F. sacer, have since been determined by Prof. Newton to be indistin- 
guishable from ordinary var. islandicus. I omitted to state, that var. gyrfalcois aN. European 
form, not recognized, I believe, from this country. The name sacer has priority over all the 
others as the specific designation. 

P. 222. Cathartes burrovianus, there is reason to believe, may be a valid species; it ae 
not, however, occur within our limits. 

P. 248. After Genus PHaLaRoPus insert Brisson. 

P. 270. Before Gruiwaz insert: — SuBorper ALECTORIDES. Cranes, Rats anp 
OTHER ALLIES. SEE p. 241. 


<a anes 
sah 


INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 


Nore. A few English synonyms, not in the body of the work, are introduced. 
of genus; *“‘§” refers to paragraph of Introduction; other references are to pages. 


A. 


Abdomen, n. Belly, § 39. j 
Aberrant, a. Deviating from ordi- 
nary structure, § 24. 
Abert’s Towhee, 153. 
Acadian Flycatcher, 174. 
Owl, 206. 
Accipiter, No. 156. 
Acicular, a. Needle-shaped, § 47. 
‘Acropodium, n. Topof toes, §77 
Acrotarsium, . Instep, § 7. 
Actiturus, No. 219. 
‘Actodromas, No. 207. 
£chmophorus, No. 312. 
ea xe. 191. 
ZE£ziothus, No. 61. 
SeRee Geallty of direct rel 
n. Quality of direct rela- 
Ana eager 
win, 154. 
Agelzus, No. 89. 
Ponies No. 124. 
Aix, No. 259. 
‘Ala. n.; pl. ale. Wing, § 51-64. 
Alar, a. Pertaining to the wings. 
Alaskan bi bal 
Alaudidz, 88 
Albatrosses, 325. 
Alcea, No. 316. 
Alcedinide, -inz, 187. 
Alcide, 338. 
Alectorides, 241, 352. 
Aletornis bellus, 349. 
gracilis, 34 348. 
nobilis, 348 
pernix, 343. 
venustus, 348. 
Aleutian Auk, 343. 
Tern, 322. 
Alice’s Thrush, 73. 
Alimentary, a. Pertaining to func- 
tion of nutrition. 
Allen’s Towhee, 152. 
Allied Creeper Wren, 85, 351. 
Orchard Oriole(var. affinis), 


158. 
eee n, pl. 
the nest 
Altricial, a. Having the nature of 
Altrices. 

Alula,n. Bastard wing, § 58. 
‘American Avocet, 247. 

Black Scoter, 293. 

Creeper = Brown C., 84. 

Cuckoos, 189. 

Dipper, 71. 

Dunlin, 256. 

Flamingo, 278. 

Goldfinch, 131. 

Mealy Redpoll, 131. 

Mew Gull, 313. 

Partridges, 236. 

Snipe, 252. 

Starlings, 153. 

Swan, 281. 

cm = Green-winged 

oat. 
Vultures, 220. 
Warblers, 91. 


White Pelican, 300. 
White-fronted Goose,282 


N. A. BIRDS. 


Birds reared in 


KEY TO 


American Widgeon, 287. 
Woodcock, 251. 

Ammodromus, No. 68. 

Amotus, a. Remote, § $7. 

Ampelide, 114. 

Ampeline, 115. 

Ampelis, No. 50. 

Analogy. n. “Counterfeit present- 
ment,” § 26. 

Anas, No. 252. 

Anatide, 278. 

Anatine, 285. 

Ancylocheilus, No. 209. 

Angle of the jaw, § 41, b. 

Angulated.@. Bent abruptly. 

Anhinga, 305. 

Ani, 189. 

Anisodactyle, a. Unequal-toed,178. 

Anna Hummingbird, 185. 

Anorthura, No. 23. “ 

Anous, No. 294. 

Anser, No. 248. 

Anserine, 281. 

Anserine Birds, 277. 

Anteorbital, a. In front of the 
eye, § 41, b 

Anthine, 90. 

Anthus, No. 28. 

Antiz,n. pl. Projections of feath- 
ers on either side of base of cul- 
men, § 52. 

Antrorse,- a. Turned forward, § 52. 

Antrostomus, No. 114. 

Aphelocoma, No. 101. 

Aphriza, No. 193. 

Apteria,n. pl. Spaces between 
feathered tracts, § 9. 

Aquatic Birds, 276. 

Aquila, No. 163. 

Aquila danana, 347. 

Aramide, 271. 

Aramus, No. 239. 

Arboricole, a. Tree-inhabiting. 

ArchezopteryXx, 69 (footnote). 

Archibuteo, No. 160. 

Arctic Bluebird, 76. 

Jaéger, 309. 

Puflin = Common P., 340. 
Tern, 321. 

Towhee, 152. 

Arcuate, a. Bow-shaped. 

Ardea, No. 228. 

Ardeidz, 264. 

Ardeinz, 265. 

Ardetta, No. 238. 

Arid, 199. 

Arizona Chipbird, 143. 

Goldfinch, 132. 
Quail, 238. 
Arkansas Flycatcher, 170. 
Goldfinch, 132. 

Arquatella, No. 210. 

Articulation, n. Joint; jointing. 

Ash-colored Sandpiper, 256. 

Ash-throated Flycatcher, ny pe 

Ashy Petrel, 329. 

Astur, No. 157. 

‘Asturina, No. 160bis. 

Asyndesmus, No. 136, 

Attenuate,@. Abruptly narrowed, 
§ 60, ¢ and fig. 110. 

Atthis. Under No. 122. 


“No.” refers to number 
a, adjective; mn, noun. 


Audubonia, No. 229. 
Audubon’s Oriole, 159. 
Thrush, 72. 
Warbler, 100. 
Auks, 338. 

Aural, Auricular. 
the ear, § 41, b. 
Auriculars, n. pl. 

§ 41, b. 
Auriparus, No. 15. 
Autumnal Tree Duck, 284. 

Warbler, 101. 
Aves aéree, 69. 
aquatic, 276. 
terrestres, 228. 


Pertaining to 


Ear-feathers, 


Avocet, 247. 
Axilla, x. Arm-pit. 
Axillar, @. Pertaining to armpit. 


Axillars, n. pl. Certain longer 
under wing coverts, § 59. 
Aythya, No. ‘261. 


B. 


Bachman’s Finch, 140. 
Oyster-catcher, 246. 
Warbler, 94. 

Back, § 38. 


Baird’s Bunting, 135, 352. 
Sandpiper, 255. 
Bald Eagle, 219. 
Baldpate, 287. 
Baltimore Oriole, 158. 
Band, n. Straight 
color-mark, § 41, d. 
Bauided Three-toed Woodpecker, 


194 
Band-tailed Buzzard, 217. 
Pigeon, 225 
Bank Swallow, 114. 
Bar, n. See Band. 
Barb, n. Lamina of a vane, § 3. 
Barbicel,n. Fringe of barbule, § 3. 
Barbule, m. Lamina of barb, § 3. 
Barn Owl, 201. 
Swallow, 113. 
Barnacle Goose, 283. 
Barred Owl, 204. 
Barrow’s Golden-eye, 290. 
Bartramian Sandpiper, 260. 
Vireo, 119. 
Basipterygoid, a. or n. _ Process 
of bone at base of skull. 
Bay-breasted Warbler, 101. 
Bay-winged Bunting, 136. 
Beak. See Bill. 
Bee-martin, 169. 
Beetle-headed Potee hap 243. 
Bell’s Finch, 1 
Vireo, BS. 
Belted Kingfisher, 188. 
Berlandier’s Wren, 86. 
Bewick’s Wren, 86. 
Big Black-head, 289. 
Bill, § 42-53. 
Bird. Feathered Animal, § 2. 
Birds of Prey, 199. 
Bittern, 269. 
Black Brant, 284. 
Duck, 285. 
Flycatcher, 172. 
Guillemot, 345. 


crosswise 


(353) 


354 


Black Hawk, 218. 
Logcock = Pileated Wood- 
pecker, 192. 
Oyster-catcher, 246. 
Parrot = Ani, 189. 
Petrel, 329. 
Ptilogonys, 116. 
Rail, 274. 
Scoter, 293. 
Skimmer, 324. 
Swift, 183. 
Tern, 323. 
Vulture=Carrion Crow, 222. 
Black and White Creeper, 92. 
Yellow Warbler, 102. 
Black-backed Woodpecker, 194. 
Black-bellied Plover, 245. 
Sandpiper, 256. 
Black-billed Cuckoo, 190. 
Blackbirds, 154, 159. 
Blackburnian Warbler, 100. 
Black-capped Petrel, 328. 
Chickadee, 81. 
Black-chinned Hummingbird, 184. 
Sparrow, 145. 
Black-crested Titmouse, 80. 
Black-faced Finch, 150. 
Black-footed Albatross, 325. 
Black-head, 289. 
Black-headed Gnatcatcher, 79. 
Grosbeak, 149. 
Gull, 315. 
Turnstone, 247. 
Vireo, 124. 
Black-necked Stilt = Stilt, 247. 
Black-poll Warbler, 100. 
Black-shouldered Kite, 211. 
Black-tailed Godwit, 258. 
Shearwater, 330. 
Black-throated Blue Warbler, 98. 
Bunting, 148. 
Diver, 354. 
Finch, 140. 
Gray Warbler, 98. 
Green Warbler, 97, 
Guillemot, 343. 
Hummingbird, 184. 
Black-vented Shearwater, 331. 
Black-whiskered Vireo, 120. 
Blanding’s Finch, 153. 
Blasipus, No. 282. 
Blue Crow, 163. 
Golden-winged Warbler, 94. 
Goose, 282. 
Grosbeak, 149. 
Hawk = Marsh Harrier, 210. 
Heron, 267, 268. 
Jay, 165. 
Mountain Warbler, 105. 
Quail, 238. 
Yellow-backed Warbler, 92. 
Blue-bill, 289. 
Bluebird, 76. 
Blue-eyed Yellow Warbler, 97. 
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, 78. 
Blue-headed Grackle, 160. 
Ground Dove, 227. 
Pigeon, 227. 
Sawbill, 187. 
Vireo, 121. 
Blue-stocking, 247. 
Blue-winged Teal, 287. 
Yellow Warbler, 94. 
Boat-billed Heron, 265 (in text). 
Boat-tailed Grackle, 160. 
Bobolink, 154. 
Bob-white, 236. 
Bog Bull, 269. 
Bogsucker, 251. 
Bohemian Waxwing, 115. 
Bonaparte’s Flycatcher = Cana- 
dian F., 109. 
Gull, 316. 
Sandpiper = White- 
rumped S., 255. 
Bonasa, No. 182. 
Booby Gannct, 298. 
“Boot,” * booted,” § 81. 
Botaurus, No. 237. 
Brachyotus, No. 143. 
Brachyrhamphus, No. 326. 
Branadt’s Cormorant, 303. 
Brant Bird, 246. 
Goose, 283. 
Branta, No. 250. 


INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 


Breast, n. Swelling anterior part 
of gastrzum, § 39. 
Brent. See Brant Goose. 
Brewev’s Blackbird, 160: 
Sparrow, 143. 
Brewster’s Linnet, 131. 
Bridled Tern, 322. 
Titmouse, 80. 
Broad-bill, 288. 
Broad-tailed Hummingbird, 185. 
Broad-winged Buzzard, 217. 
Bronchus, pl. bronchi, n. . Fork 
of the windpipe, § 2. 
Brotherly-love Vireo, 120. 
Brown Crane, 271. 

Creeper, 84. 

Jay, 164. 

Lark, 90. 

Pelican, 300. 

Thrush. 75. 

Towhee, 152. 
Brown-back, 252. ‘ 
Brown-headed Creeper Wren, 85. 

Nuthatch, 83. 
Woodpecker, 195. 
Briinnich’s Guillemot, 346. 
Bubo, No. 140. 
Bubo leptosteus. 347, 
Bucephala, No. 262. 
Budytes, No. 27. 
Butl-breasted Flycatcher, 176. 
Sandpiper, 261. 
Buflle-headed Duck, 290. 
Butfon’s Jaéger, 309. 
Bull-bat, 181. 
Bullfinches, 126, 128. 
Bull-head, 243. 
Bullock’s Oriole, 158. 
Buntings, 126, 133, 134, 135, 136. 
Buphagus, No. 279. 
Burgomaster, 311. 
Burion, 129. 
Burrowing Owl, 207. 
Bush Quails, 229 (in text). 
Butcher Bird, 125. 
Buteo, No. 159. 
Butorides, No. 234. 
Butter Ball, 290. 
Buzzards, 209, 215-20. 


Cc. 


Cabanis’ Kingfisher, 188. 
Cabot’s Tern=Sandwich Tern, 320. 
Cerulean Warbler, 99. 
Calamospiza, No. 78. 
Calamus, m. Barrel of feather, § 3. 
Calandritinz, 88. 
Calcareous, a. Chalky. 
Calico-back, 246. 
Calidris, No. 212. 
California Grebe = Eared G., 337. 
Gull, 3138. 
Jay, 166. 
Mockingbird, 75. 
Partridge, 238. 
Quail, 238. 
Squirrel Hawk=Ferru- 
gineous Buzzard, 218, 
Vulture, 222. 
Woodpecker, 196. 
Calliope Hummingbird, 185. 
Callipepla, No. 187. 
Campephilus, No. 129. 
Camptolamus, No. 264. 
Campylorhynchus, No. 18. 
Camtschatcan Auk = Whiskered 
Auk, 342. 
Canada Flycatcher, 109. 
Goose, 284. 
Grouse, 232. 
Jay, 166. 
Canaliculus, n. Groove. 
Canon Towhee, 152. 
Canthus, n. Corner of eyelids. 
Canvas-back, 290, 
Cape May Warbler, 102. 
Cape Pigeon, 328. 
Caprimulgide, 179; -inee, 180. 
Caput, 7. Head, § 31. 
Caracara Buzzard, 220. 
Carbonated Warbler, 105. 
Cardinal Redbird, 151. 
Cardinalis, No. 84. 
Carina, n.; pl.,-z. Keel or ridge. 


Carinatz, 69 (footnote). 
Carinate, a. Keeled or ridged. 
Carnivorous, a. Flesh-eating. 
Carolina Dove, 226. 
Parroquet, 199. 
Rail, 273. 
Titmouse, 81. 
Waxwing, 116. 
Wren, 86. 
Carotid Artery. Principal artery 
Pr age neers PP: , ce 
Jarpal, 2. ertaining to carpus. 
Carpodacus, No. 58, 
Carpus, n. Wrist, § 55, 56. 
Carrion Crow, 222. 

Caruncle, n. Any natural fleshy 
outgrowth. §41,e. | hia 
Carunculate, a. Having natural 

fleshy outgrowths. 


~ Caspian Tern, 319. 


Cassin’s Auk = Whiskered A., 342. 
Bullfineh, 128. 
Finch, 140, 352. 
Flycatcher, 170. 
Purple Finch, 128. 
Vireo, 122 

Catarractes affinis, 350. 

antiquus, 350. 

Catbird, 74. 

Cathartes, No. 166. 

Cathartida, 220. 

Catherpes, No. 20. 

Cauda, n. Tail, § 65-70. 

Caudal, a. Pertaining to the tail. 

Cedar Bird, 116. 

Centre of gravity, § 34. 

Centrocercus, No. 179. 

Centronyx, No. 64. 

Centurus, No, 134. 

Ceratorhina, No. 820. 

Cere, n., § 48. 

Certhia, No. 17. 

Certhiidz -ine, 83. 

Ceithiola, No. 42. 

Cervix, n. Scruff of neck, § 40. 

Ceryle, No. 113. 

Cheetura, No. 118. 

Cheeturing, 183. 

Chama, No. 11, 

Chameeide, 79. 

Chamepeleia, No. 172. 

Chaparral Cock, 189- 

Character, 7., § 15. 

Charadriid, -inze, 242. 

Charadrius, No. 190. 

Chats, 108 (also 76). 

Chatterers. See Waxwings. 

Chaulelasmus, No. 254. 

Cherry Bird, 116. 

Chestnut-backed Chickadee, 81. 

Chestnut-collared Lark Bunting, 


134. 
Chestnut-sided Warbler, 101. 
Chewink, 151. 
Chiacalaca, 231. 
Chickadees, 79. 
Chicken Hawk, 212. 
Chimney Switt or Swallow, 183. 
pe or Chipping Sparrow, 


Chondestes, No. 75. 
Chordeiles, No. 115. 
Chreecocephalus, No. 2838. 
Chrysomitris, No. 62. 
Chuck-will’s-widow, 180. 
Ciconiide, 241. — 
Cilia, n. pl. Barbicels, § 3. (Hairs.) 
Cinclide, 76. 
Cinclus, No. 7. 
Cinereous Shearwater, 330. 
Snowbird, 141. 
Thrush, 75. 
Cinnamon Teal, 287. 
Circumorbital, a Around the 
eyes, § 41, b. 

Cireus, No. 151. . 
Cistothorus, No. 25. 
Clamatores, 167. 
Clapper Rail, 273. 
Clarke’s Crow, 163. 

Grebe, 336. 
Class, n., § 16. 
Clavicle, n._ Collay-bone, § 2. 
Clay-colored Sparrow, 143. 
Cliff Swallow, 114. 


Cloaca.n. End of large gut. | 

Cnemial, a. Pertaining to the shin. 
Cobb, 312. . 
cecereonl. a. 


Coccyx, n. Last tail-bone, § 65. 

Coccyzine, 189. 

Coceyzus, No. 128. 

Cock of the Plains, 233. 

Ceecum, n.; pl. coca. 
; at 


Pertaining to the 


Intestinal 


Columbide, 223. 


of mouth; also, corner of mouth, 


§ 53. 
Common Cormorant, 302. 
Crossbill, 129. 
Crow, 162. 
Dove, 225. 
Gannet, 298. 
Guillemot, 345. 
Gull, 312. 
Puftin, 340. 
Rail, 273. 
Tern, 320. 
Wild Goose, 28t. 
Compressed, a. Flattened side- 
ways. 
Conirostral, a. Having a cone- 
shaped bill, § 46. 
Conirostral Birds, 126. 
Connecticut Warbler, 105. 
Continuity, n. Part of a thing 
é between Ea as 
ontopus, No. 108. 
come No. 138. 
Cooper’s Buzzard, 215. 
-Flycatcher= Olive-sided 
F., 173. 
Hawk, 212. 
Sandpiper, 255. 
Tanager, 111. 
Coot, 275. Coots (Sea), 293. 
Coracoid.a.orn. Bone connecting 
shoulder with sternum. 
Cormorants, 301. 
Corn Crake, 274. 
Corneous, a. Horny. 

Cornu, 7n.; pl. cornua. Horn. 
Corona, n. Crown; middle of 
pileum, § 41, a. : 
Corpus callosum.7. Mass of white 

brain substance connecting right 
and lett hemispheres, § 2. 
Corvid2, 161; -inz, 162. 
_ Corvus, No. 95. 
Costa Hummin bird, 185. 
Coturniculus, No. 67. 
Cotyle, No. 47. 
Couch’s Flycatcher, 170. 
Coues’ Flycatcher, 173. 
Courlan, 271. 
Cowbird, 155 =Cowpen Bird, 155. 
Cracidz, 231. 
Cranes, 241, 270. - 
Craxirex. See Buteo, No. 159. 
Creagrus, No. 288. 
Creepers, 83. 
Crenulate,a. Wavy-edged. 
Crest, n., § 41, f. 
Crested Auk, 342. 
Flycatcher = Great Crest- 
ed F., 171. 
Grebe, 336. 
Titmouse = Tufted T., 80. 
Crex, No. 212. 
Crimson-fronted Finch, 129. 
Crissal, a. Pertaining to under 
tail coverts. 
Crissal Thrush, 75. 
Crissum. n. Under tail coverts, 
§ 39, § 65. 
Crista, n. Crest, § 41, f. 
Crossbills, 126, 129. 
Crotophaga, No. 126; -inz, 189. 


~ Cultrate, a. 


INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 


Crow-blackbird, 159. 

Crows. 161, 162. 

see n. Leg from knee to heel, 
72, a. - 

Crying Bird, 271. 

Cuckoos, 188. 

Cuculi, 178, 185; -ida, 158. 

Culmen, n. Top ridge of bill, § 50. 

Culminal, @ Pertaining to cul- 


men, § 52. 
Like a knife-blade. 
Cultrirostral, a.. § 46. 
Cuneate, a Wedge-shaped. 
Cuneiform, a. Wedge-shaped. 
Cuneiform, n. One of the wrist- 
bones, § 55. 
Cupidonia, No. 181. 
Curassows, 231. 
Curlew Sandpiper, 255. 
Curlews, 251, 262. 
Cursores, 228. 
Curve-billed Thrush, 75, 351. 
Curvirostra, No. 59 (Lege Loxia) 
and p. 351. 
Cuticle, n. 
skin. 
Cutis, n. Skin. 
Cutwater, 324. 
Cuvier’s Kinglet, 78. 
Cyanospiza, No. 81. 
Cyanurus, No. 100. 
Cygnine, 280. 
Cygnus, No. 247. 
Cymochorea, No. 305. 
Cypseli. 178, 179. 
Cypselidz, -inz, 182. 
Cyrtonyx, No. 188. 


if 


Dab-chick, 338. 
Dafila, No. 253. 
Daption, No. 301. 
Dark-bodied Shearwater, 332. 
Darters, 305. 
Day Owl, 205. 
Deciduous, a. Falling off. 
Decurved, a. Curved downward. 
Dendrocygna, No. 251. 
Dendreca, No. 35. 
Dentirostral, a. Havinga bill with 
toothed or notched tomia, § 46. 
Depressed, a. Flattened up and 
down. 

Dermal, a. Pertaining to skin; 
cutaneous, § 8. 

Desmognathonus, a. 
palate-bones united. 

Diaphragm, 7. Muscular partition 
between breast and belly, § 2. 

Diedapper, 338. 

Dietetic, a. Pertaining to food. 

Digit, n. Finger or toe. ¢ 

Digitigrade, a. That walks on 
toes only. 

Diomedea, No. 296. 

Diomedeine, 325. 

Dipper, 77. (Duck, 290). (Grebe, 
338 


Outermost layer of 


Haying the 


Disk,n. Setof radiating feathers, 
Distichous, a. Two-rowed, § 65. 
Diurnal Birds of Prey, 208. 
Divaricate, @. Branching off. 
Divers = Loons, 333. 
Diving Birds, 332. 
Dolichonyx, No. 87. 
Dorsal,@. Pertaining to the back. 
Dorsal Woodpecker, 194. 
Dorsum, n. Back; part of no- 
teum, § 38. 

Double-crested Cormorant, 303. 
Dough-bird. 262. 
Dovekie, 345. 
Doves, 223. 
Dowitcher, 252. 
Downy Woodpecker, 194. 
Duck Hawk, 213. 
Ducks, 278, 285, 288. 
Dunlin, 256. 
Dusky Duck, 285. 

Grouse, 233. 

Redpoll, 131. 

Shearwater, 331. 
Dwarf Cowbird, 155. 

Thrush (var. nanus), 72. 


355 


E. 


FRagles, 209, 219. 
Eared Grebe, 337. 
Eastern Bluebird, 76. 
Eave Swallow, 114. 
Eedysis, n. Moult. § 10. 
Ectopistes, No. 168. 
Egrets, 267, 268. 
Eiders, 291, 292. 
Eider Duck, 292. 
Elanus, No. 154. 
Elegant Tern, 319. 
Emarginate, a. Slightly forked; 
also, incised, § 60, ¢; fig. 110. 
Embernagra, No. 86. 
Emperor Goose, 283. 
Empidonax, No. 109. 
English “‘Snipe”=Wilson’s S., 252. 
Sparrow, 146. 
; Teal, 287. 
ee ahs, n. Pit of stomach, 
39 


§ 39. 
Epiglottis, n. Gristly flap on top 
of windpipe, § 2. 
Epignathous, a. Hook-billed, §45. 
Epiphysis, x. Gristly or bony cap 
on end of a bone, 32 (footnote). 
Bpithelium, nm. Superficial layer of 
mucous membrane, as cuticle 
is of skin, § 8. 
Eremophila, No. 26. 
Ereunetes, No. 206. 
Erismatura, No. 270. 
Esquimaux Curlew, 262. 
European Goldfinch, 146. 
Widgeon, 286. 
Woodcock, 252. 
Euspiza, No. 79. 
Evening Grosbeak, 127. 
Everglade Kite, 211. 


i, 


Falcate, a. Seythe-shaped. 
Falcinellus, No. 225 (with Ibis). 
Falco, No. 158. 
Falconide, 208. 
Falcons, 210, 213. 
Family, n, § 19. 
Fascia, n. Broad band of color, 
§ 41, d. 
Fasciated Tit, 79. 
Fascicle, fasciculum, n. Bundle. 
Feathers, n. Peculiar covering of 
birds, §3. 
Femoral, a. Pertaining to thigh. 
Femoral Falcon, 215. 
Femur, n. Thigh-bone. 
Ferrugineous Buzzard, 218. 
Owl, 206, 352. 
Fibula, x. Smaller outer leg-bone, 
=F 


ia 
Field Lark. 157. 
Plover, 260. 
Sparrow, 143. 
Fiery Redbird, 151 (var. igneus). 
Filamentous. a. Thread-like. 
Filopluma, x. Hair-like feather, §5. 
Filoplumaceous, a, § 4. 
Finches, 126 e¢ seq. 
Fire-bird, 158. 
Fissirostral, n. 
cleft bill, § 46. 
Fissirostral Birds, 126. 
Oscines, 112. 
Fish Crow, 163. ’ 

Duck, 296. 

Mawk, 209, 219. 
Flamingoes, 277. 
Flammulated Owl, 203. 
Flesh-footed Shearwater, 331. 
Flexure, n. A bending; a bent 

place. E 

Flicker, 197. 

Flocking Fowl], 289. 

Florida, No. 230. 

Florida Cormorant, 303. 
Crow, 163. 
Gallinule, 275. 
Heron, 267. 
Jay, 165. 

Flycatchers, 167. 

Flycatching Thrushes, 116. 


Having deeply- 


356 


Flycatching Warblers, 108. 
Fly-up-the-Creek = Green Heron. 
Follicle, n. Minute sac secreting 
various substances, § 7, § 8. 
Forficate, a. Deeply forked, § 70. 
Fork-tailed Flycatcher, 169. 
Gull, 317. 
Petrel, 329. 
Forster’s Tern, 320. 7 
Fossa, nasal, § 51. (Fossa, a ditch.) 
Fossil Birds, 347. 
Fox Sparrow, 147. 
Franklin’s Grouse, 233. 
Rosy Gull, 315. 
Fratercula, No. 318. 
Fregetta, No. 308. 
French Mockingbird = Thrasher, 
75. 
Frenum, n. Cheek-stripe. 
Fresh-water Marsh-hen, 273. 
Frigates, 306. 
Fringillid, 126. 
Frons, 7”. Forehead, § 41, a. 
Frontal, a. Pertaining to the fore- 
head. 
Frost-bird, 243. 
Fulica, No. 245. 
Fulicineg, 275. 
Fuligula (““Fulix”), No, 260. 
Fuliguline, 288. 
Fulix = Fuligula, No. 260. 
Fulmar Petrel, 327. 
Fulmars, 327. 
Fulmarus, No. 299. 
Fulyous Tree Duck, 284. 
Furculum, n. Merry-thought, § 32. 
Fusiform, a. Spindle-shaped; 
cigar-shaped. 


G. 


Gadwall, 286. 

Gairdner’s Woodpecker, 194. 

Gallinaceous Birds, 228. 

Gallinz, 228, 347. 

Gallinago, No. 203. 

Gallinula, No. 243. 

Gallinules, 274. 

Gallinulinz, 274. 

Gambel’s Partridge, 238. 

Sparrow, 144. 

Gannets, 298. 

Garrot, 290. 

Garruline, 163. 

Garzetta, No. 231. 

Gastreum, n. Under parts, § 36. 

Geese, 278, 281-4. 

Gelochelidon, No. 289. 

Gena, n., pl. gene. Cheeks, § 41, b. 

Genito-urinary, @. Pertaining to 
the sexual organs. 

Genus, 7., § 20. 

Geococcyx, No. 127. 

Geothlypis, No. 38. 

Geotrygon, No. 174. 

Giant Fulmar, 327. 

Gila Woodpecker, 196. 

Gilded Woodpecker, 197. 

Glacial Puffin, 340. 

Glaucidium, No. 148. 

Glaucous Gull, 311. 

Glaucous-winged Gull, 311. 

Glossy Ibis, 263. 

Glottis = Totanus, No. 215. 

Gnatcatchers, 78. 

Gnathotheca, n. Covering of un- 
der jaw, § 48, b. ‘ 

Goatsuckers, 179, 180. 

Godwits, 250, 257. 

Golden Eagle, 219. 

Plover, 243. 

Robin, 158. 

Warbler, 97. 
Golden-cheeked Warbler, 98. 
Golden-crowned Kinglet, 78. 

Sparrow, 145. 
Thrush, 105. 
Golden-eye, 290. 
Golden-winged Woodpecker, 197. 
Goldfinches, 131, 132; 146 (Obs.). 
Goniaphea, No. 80. 
Gonys, . Outline of mandibular 
symphysis, § 49. 
Goosander, 296. 
Goose. See Geese. 


INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 


Goshawk, 212. 

Gould’s Sparrow, 139. 

Grace’s Warbler, 103. 

Graculayus anceps, 350. 
pumilus, 350. 
velox, 349. 

Graculidz, 301. 

Graculus, No. 275. 

Graculus idahensis, 349. 

Gradate, a., § 70. 

Grallatores, 239, 348. 

Granular, @., § 8. 

Granulate, § 79. 

Grass Finch, 136. 

ese 255. 

Gray Duck = Gadwall, 286. 

Hawk, 218. 

Kingbird, 170. 

Rutfed Grouse, 235. 

Snipe, 252. 

Vireo, 122. 
Gray-back, 256. 
Gray-crowned Finch, 130, 352, 
Gray-eared Finch, 130. 
Great Auk, 339. 

Black-backed Gull, 312. 

Blue Heron, 267. 

Carolina Wren, 86. 

Crested Flycatcher, 171. 

Gray Owl, 204. 

Horned Ow}, 202. 

Marbled Godwit, 257. 

Northern Diver, 334. 

Shrike, 125. 

White Egret, 267. 

Heron, 267. 
Greater Scaup Duck, 289. 
Shearwater, 331. 
Tell-tale, 258. 
Yellowshanks, 258. 
Great-tailed Grackle, 160. 
Grebes, 335 
Green Black-capped Flycatcher, 
109. 
Green Crested Flycatcher, 174. 

Finch, 153. 

Heron, 268. 
Greenland Sea Eagle, 220. 
Greenlets, 117. 
Greenshanks, 259. 
Green-tailed Finch, 153. 
Green-winged Teal, 287. 
Grosbeaks, 126, 127. 
Ground Cuckoo, 189. 

Dove, 226, 227. 
Wren, 79. 
Grouse, 232. 
Grubev’s Buzzard, 219. 
Gruidz, 270. 
Grus, No. 223. 
haydenii, 348. 
proavus, 348. 
Guans, 231. 
Guinea-fowl, 230. 
Gula, n. Upper throat, § 40. 
Gular,a. Pertaining to the throat. 
Gull-billed Tern, 319. 
Gulls, 308, 310. 
Guttur, 2. Throat, § 40, 
Gymnokitta, No. 97. 
Gyrfalcon, 213, 352. 


ists 


Hemantopodide, 246. 
Hematopus, No. 194. 
Hairbird, 142. 

Hairy Woodpecker, 193. 
Haliaétus, No. 164. 
Haliplana, No. 292. 
Halocyptena, No. 303. 
Halodromine, 325 (in text). 
Hammond’s Flycatcher, 176. 
Hamulate, a. Hooked. 


Hamulus,7”. Hooked fringe of a. 


barbule, § 3. 

Hangnest. 158. 

Harelda, No. 263. 

Harlan’s Buzzard, 216. 

Harlequin Duck, 291. 

Harporhynchus, No. 4. 

Harriers, 209. 

Harris’s Buzzard, 215. 
Sparrow, 145. 
Woodpecker, 193. 


Hastate, a. Spearhead-shaped, 
§ 41, d (footnote.) © 

Hawk Owl, 205. 

Hawks, 208, 209, 212. 

Heerman’s Song Sparrow, 139. 


Gull = White-headed 
G., 314. 
Heliopzdica, No. 119. 
Helminthophaga, No. 34. - 


Helmitherus, No. 33, 

Heloise Hummingbird, 185. 
Tiemlock Warbler, 100. 

Hen Hawk, 216. 

Henry’s Night-hawk, 181. 
Henslow’s Sparrow, 137. 
Hepatic Tanager, 112. fs 
Hermit Thrush, 72. re 
Herodias, No. 232. 

Herodiones, 240, 262. 

Tlerons, 240, 264-5. 

Herring Gull, 312. 
Hesperiphona, No. 55. 
Hesperocichla. Soe of No.1. 
Tesperornis regalis, 350. 
Heteroscelus, No. 221. 

High Holder = Flicker, 197. 
Himantopus, No. 197. 
Hirundinide, 112. 

Hirundo, No. 44. 


* Histrionicus, No, 265. 


Hoazin, 229. 
Honey Creeper, 110. 
Hooded Flycatcher, 109. 
Gull = Franklin’s 
G., 315. 
Merganser, 296. 
Oriole, 159. 
Warbler = H. Flycatcher. 
Horn-billed Auk, 341. 
Hornby’s Petrel, 329. 
Horned Grebe, 337. 
Lark, 89. 
Owl = Great H. O., 202. 
Puffin, 340. 
House Finch, 129. 
Wren, 86. 
Hudsonian Curlew, 262. 
Godwif, 258. 
Humeral, a. Pertaining to the 
upper arm. 
Humerus, 2. Upper arm-bone, § 55. 
Hummingbirds, 183. 
Huron Scoter = White-winged do. 
Hutchins’ Goose, 284. 
Hutton’s Vireo, 123. 
Hybrid, n. Cross between two 
species, § 22. 
Hydranassa, No. 233. 
Hydrochelidon, No. 293. 
Hylocichla. Subg. of No.1. 
Hylotomus, No. 130. 
Hyoid,a. Pertaining to tongue, 191. 
Hypochondrium, n. Flank, § 38. 
Hypognathous, a. Having under 
mandible longer than upper. 
Hyporhachis, n. Aftershaft, § 3. 


1 


Rosy 


Ibidinz, 263. 
Ibis, No, 226. 
Ibises, 262, 263. 
Ice Gull, 311. 
Iceland Falcon= Gyrfalcon, 213. 
Ichthyornis dispar, 350. 
Icteria, No. 39. 
Icteridz, 153. 
Icteriinz, 108. 
Icterine, 157. 
Icterus, No. 92. 
Ictinia, No. 153. 
Imbricated, a. Fixed shinglewise. 
Imperial Tern = Sterna caspia, 
var. imperator, 319 
(in text). 
Woodpecker = Campe- 
: philus imperialis, 191. 
Incised, a. Cut away. Narrow- 
ing abruptly, § 60, ¢; fig. 110. 
Incumbent, a. Ovyerlying, § 87. 
Indian Hen, 269. 
Indigo Bird, 150. 
Inferior maxillary, m., § 44. 
Infraorbital, a. Under the eye, 


§ 41, 


Insessores, 69. 

Insistent. a., § $7. E 

Tntermaxillary. See premaxillary. 

Internode, rn. Any bone of finger 
or toe, § 72, f. 

Interorbital,a. Between the eyes. 

Interramal, a. Between forks of 
the lower jaw, § 41. c. 

Interscapular, a. Between shoul- 


ders, § 38. i 
Tridescent, a. Of changeable glit- 
tering color, § 41, d (footnote). 

Ivory Gull, 313. 
Iyory-billed Woodpecker, 192. 


K. 


Kennicott’s Ow], 203. 
Warbler, 77, 351. 
Kentucky Warbler, 106. 
Key West Pigeon (Dove), 227. 
i aoa eget 244. 
King Eider, fs 
Rail, 273. 
Vulture, 222. 
Kingbird, 169. 
Kingfishers, 187. 


Kinglets, 77. 

Kirtian d’s Warbler, 104. 
Kites, 209, 211. 
Kittiwake Gull, 314. 
Kittlitz’s Murrelet, 344. 
Knob-billed Auk, 343. 
Knot, 255. 

Kotzebue’s Gull, 314. 


L. 


Labrador Duck, 291. 

Lagopus, No. 183. 

Lamellate, a. Having lamelle, 
4 


§ 47. 
Lamellirostral, a. Having lamel- 
late bill, § 46. 
Lamellirostres, 277. 
Lampornis, No. 120. 
Lampronetta, No. 267. 
Lanceolate, a. Lance-head- 
shaped. 
Lanier Falcon, 213. 
Laniidz,-ine, 124. 
Laornis edvardsianus, 350. 
Lapland Longspur, 133. 
Lapwing, 243. 
Large-billed Water Thrush, 106. 
Laride, 308. 
Larinz, 310. 


Lark Buntings, 134, 147. 
Finch, 146. 
Larks, 88, 157. - 
Larus, No. 281. 
Larynx n.; pl. larynges. Adam’s 
apple; hollow cartilaginous 


organ at either end of wind- 


pipe, § 2. E 
Laughing Gull, 315. 
Lawrence’s Flycatcher, 171. 

Goldfinch, 132. 
Lawyer, 247. 
Lazuli Finch, 149. 
Leach’s Petrel, 329. 
Leaden Titmouse, 82. 
Least Auk, 343. ~ 
Bittern, 270. 
Flycatcher, 175. 
Gall. 316. 
Petrel, 328. 
Sandpiper, 254. 
Tern, 321. 
Titmonse, 82. 
Vireo, 123. 
Leconte’s Sparrow, 137. 
Thrush, 75. 


INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 


Lesser Redpoll — Redpoll, 130. 
Scaup Duck, 289. 
Snow Goose, 282. 
Tell-tale, 259. 
Lestridine, 308. 
Leucosticte, No. 60. 
Lewis’ Woodpecker, 197. 
Ligamentum nuche, n. Strong 
fibrous band in the nape of 
many animals. 
Limicol, 239. 
Limosa, No. 213. 
Lincoln’s Finch, 138. 
Linear, a. Of uniformly narrow 
shape. 
Linne Hummingbird, 186, 352. 
Linnets, 127, 130, 131. 
Linota, No. 61bis. 
Little Black-head, 289. 
Blue Heron, 268. 
White Egret, 267. 
Lobate, a. Finished with mem- 
branous flaps, § 89. 
Lobipes, No. 199. 
Logcock= Pileated Woodpecker. 
Loggerhead Shrike, 125. 
Lomyia, No. 328. 
Long-billed Curlew, 262. 

Marsh Wren, 87. 

Thrush, 75. 
Long-crested Jay, 165. 
Long-eared Owl, 203. 
Long-exserted. Said of tail feath- 

a, abruptly longer than the 
rest. 
Longipennes, 307. 
Longirostral, a, § 46. 
Longshanks, 247. 
Longspur, 133. 
Long-tailed Chat, 108. 

Chickadee, 81. 

Duck, 291. 

Jaéger, 309. 
Long-winged Swimmers, 307. 
Loons, 333. 

Lophodytes, No. 272. 
Lophophanes, No. 12. 
Lophortyx, No. 185. 
Lore, n. Space between eye and 
bill, § 41, b. . 
Lorum. See Lore. 
Louisiana Egret, 268. 
Shrike — Loggerhead 
S., 125. 
Tanager, 112. 
Loxia = Curvirostra, No. 59. 
Lucy’s Warbler, 94. 
Lunda, No. 319. 


M. 


Maccall’s Owl, 203. 

Maccown’s Bunting, 134. 

Macerated, a. Soaked to softness. 

Macgillivray’s Warbler, 107. 

Macrorhamphus, No. 204. 

Magnolia Warbler, 102. 

Magnum, 2. A certain wrist-bone, 
v0. 


Magpie, 164. 
Mala, n. Side of upper jaw. 
Mallard, 285. 
Mandible, n. Jaw(usually under 
jaw), $44. at 
Mandibular, @. Pertaining to the 
mandible. 
Mangrove Cuckoo, 190. 
Mank’s Shearwater, 331. 
Man-of-war Bird, 306. 
Mantle, n. See Stragulum, § 38. 
Marbled Godwit, 257. 
Guillemot, 344. 
Marbling, n. Fine spotting and 
streaking, § 41, d (footnote). 
Mareca, No. 255. 
Marginal Fringes, § 90. 
Marlin, 257. 
Marsh Blackbirds, 154. 
Harrier or Hawk, 210. 
gts = Towhee Bunting, 
151. 
Tern, 319. 
Wrens, 87, 88. 
Martins, 114. 
Maryland Yellow-throat, 107. 


357 


Massena Partridge, 239. 

Matrix, n. Mould; tissue or or- 
gan containing something and 
determining its nature. 

Maxilla, 7. ; pl. maxilla. Generally 
Le ia to upper mandible, 

Maxillo-palatines, n. Certain 
bones of upper jaw. 

tera Jay = Blue Crow, 
6: 


Meadow-lark, 157. 
Mealy Red-poll, 131. 
Megapodide, 230. 
Melanerpes, No. 135. 
Meleagridz, 231. 
Meleagris, No. 177. 
altus. 348. 
antiquus, 347. 
celer, 348. 
Melopeleia, No. 171. 
Melospiza, No. 69. 
Members, n. Bill, wings, tail and 
feet. 
Mentum,n. Chin, § 41, c¢. 
Mergansers, 295-6. 
Mergine, 295. 
Mergulus, No. 324. 
Mergus, No. 271. 
Metacarpal, a. Pertaining to the 
hand. 
Metacarpus, 7. 
of hand, § 55. 
Metagnathous, a. 
§ 45 


Pinion; bones 
Cross-billed, 


§ 45. 

Metatarsal. a. Pertaining to the 
shank, § 72, d. 

Metatarsus, n. Shank; foot (leg) 
cae heel and base of toes, 

712, ©. 

Mexican Cormorant, 303. 
Crossbill, 129. 
Flicker, 198. 
Goldfinch, 133. 
Trogon, 186. 
Woodpecker, 198. 
Wren, 85. 

Mew Gull, 313. 

Micrathene, No. 149. 

Micropalama, No. 205. 

Migratory Thrush = Robin, 71. 

Milvulus, No. 104. 

Mimine, 73. 

Mimus, No. 3. 

Mississippi Kite, 211. 

Missouri Skylark, 91. 

Mitrephorus, No. 110. 

Mniotilta, No. 30. 

Mockingbird, 74. 

Mocking Thrushes, 73. 

Mollipilose, a. Softly downy- 
feathered. 

Molothrus, No. 88. 

Momotide, 186. 

Momotus, No. 112. 

Morelet’s Finch, 150. 

Morton’s Finch, 145. 

Motacillida, 89; -inz, 90. 

Mother Carey’s Chicken, 328. 

Motmots, 186. 

Mottled Owl, 202. 

Mound-birds, 230. 

Mountain Chickadee, 81. 

Mockingbird, 74. 
Plover, 245. 
Quail, 237. 

Mourning Warbler, 107. 

Mucous membrane, ». Lining of 
alimentary and some other in- 
terior tracts of the body. 

Mucronate, a. Spine-tipped. 

Mud-hen, 273. 

Murre, 345. 

Murrelet, 344. 

Myiadestes, No. 52. 

Myiadestinz, 116. 

Myiarchus, No. 106. 

Myiodioctes, No. 40. 

Myrtle Bird, 99. 


N. 


Nashville Warbler, 94. 
Natatores, 276, 349. 
Nauclerus, No. 155. 


358 


Nebulation, n. Clouding. 
Neocorys, No. 29. 

Nephacetes, No. 117. 

Nettion, No. 255. 

New World Warblers, 91. 

New York Thrush=W ater Thrush. 
Night Heron, 269. 

Night-hawk, 181. 

Night-jar, 180. 

Nocturnal Birds of Prey, 200. 
Noddy Tern, 325. 

Node, n. Swelling; hence joint, 


§ 72 

Non- ciekoataus Passeres, 167. 

Nonpareil, 149. 

Northern Phalarope, 248. 

Sea Eagle, 220. 

Sharp- “tailed Grouse, 234. 
Notenm, n. Upper parts, $36, § 38. 
Nucha, n. Nape, § 40. 

Nuchal Woodpecker. 195. 

Nucleated. a. Having a special 

cell or cells within,§ 8. 

Numenius, No. 222. 

Numidid, 230. 

Nuthatches, 82. 

Nuttall’s Magpie, 164. 
Whippoorwill, 181. 
Woodpecker, 193. 

Nyctale, No. 147. 

Nyctea, No. 145. 

Nytherodius. No. 236. 

Nyctiardea, No. 235. 


oO. 


Oceanites, No. 307. 
Oceanodroma, No. 306. 
Occiput, n. Hind-head, § 41, a. 
Ocellus, n. Small sharp round 
spot, 21 (footnote). 
Odontophorine, 236. 
Cédemia, No. 269. 
(Esophagus, m. 
Oil-gland, n., § 7. 
Old-wife, 291. 
Old World Vultures, 208. 
Warblers, 77. 
Olive-backed Thrush, 72. 
Thrush (var. 
latus), 73. 
Olive-sided Flycatcher, 173. 
Olor, 280. 
Onychotes, No. 161. 
Opisthocomus cristatus, 229. 
Oporornis, No. 37. 
Orange-crowned Warbler, 95. 
Orbital, a. ge4 taining to the eye- 
socket. § 41, b. 
Orchard Oriole, 157. 
Order, m. § 18. 
Oregon Snowbird, 141. 
Towhee, 152. 
Oreortyx, No. 185. 
Oreoscoptes, No. 2. 
Orioles, 157. 
Ornithology, n. 
Ortalida, No. 176 
Ortolan, 273. 
Ortyx, No. 184. 
Os, n. Bone. 
Oscines. Singing Birds, 70. 
Osprey, 219. 
Ossified, a. Become bony; joined 
by bone. 
Ossifraga, No. 298. 
Otus, No. 142. 
Ouzel= Dipper, 77. 
Ovary;n. Organ that makes eggs. 
Oven-bird. 105. 
Oviduct, n. Tube that carries 
eggs to anus, § 2. 
Ovum, n.; pl. ova. Egg. 
Owls, 200. 
Ox-bird, 256. 
Ox-eye, 243. 
Oyster-catcher, 246. 


iz} 


Pacific Diver, 335. 
Ender, 293. 
Fulmar, 327. 

Pagophila, No. 285. 

Painted Kinch, 149. 

Flycatcher, 110. 


Gullet. 


ustu- 


Science of Birds. 


‘INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 


Painted Goose, 283. 
Lark Bunting, 134. 
Paisano, 18). 
Palxotringa lttoralis, 349. 
vagans, 349. 
vetus, 349. 
Palate, n. Bony roof of mouth. ~ 
Palatine, a. Pertaining to palate. 
Palatine, nm. Bone in roof of 
mouth. 
Pallas’s Cormorant, 304. 
Thrush = Hermit Thrush. 
Palm Warbler, 104. 
Palmer’s Thrush. See Additions, 


p. 301 
Eye-lid, 


Palpebra, nj 
Pancreas, n. Sweet-bread: lobu- 
lated gland near stomach, the 
secretion of which aids diges- 
tion. 
Pandion, No. 162. 
Se No. 116. 
Papula, n.; pl. -e. Small fleshy 
prominenes: 
Papillose, a. Having papille. 
Paragnathous, a. Having the 
iv andibles mecting at the point, 
45. 
Pavasitic Jaéger, 309. 
Paranchenium, n. Side of neck, 
) 


pl. -x. 


Paridz, 79. 
Parine, 80. 
Parkmann’s Wren, 87. 
Parroquet, 199. 
Auk, 341. 
Parrots, 198. 
Partridges, 235. 
Parula, No. 31. 
Parus, No. 13. 
Passer, No. 76. 
Passerculus, No. 65 and p. 352. 
rella, No. 77. 
res. Perchers Proper, 69. 
Patella, n. Knee-cap, § 72. 
Peabody-bird, 144. 
Peale’s Egret. Reddish Egret. 
Pectinate, a. Toothed like a 
comb, § 91. 
Pectoral Sandpiper, 255. 
Pectus,n. Breast, § 39. 
Pediccetes, No. 180. 
Peep, 254. 
Peetweet, 260. 
Pelecanide, 298. 
Pelecanus, No. 274. 
Pelicans, 298. 
Pelidna, No. 208. 
Penelopine, 231. 
Penguins, 333 (in text). 
Penna, n. Contour feather, § 5. 
Pennaceous, a. Of complete feath- 
ery structure, § 4. 
Perchers, 69. 
Peregrine Falcon, 213. 
Perisoreus, No. 103. 
Pernis (g lingl 209. 
Pes, n. Foot, § 71 ef seg. 
Petrels, 324, 326. 
Petrochelidon, No. 46. 
Peucea, No. 70. 
Pewee, 172, 173. 
Pewit, 172. 
Phebetria, No. 297. 
Phenopepla, No. 51. 
Phaéthon, No. 278. 
Phaéthontide, 305. 
Phalanx, n.; pl. phalanges. Any 
bone of a finger or toe, § 53, 
§ 72,a. 
Phalaropes, 247. 
Phalaropodide, 247. 
Phalaropus, No. 200. 
Phaleris, No. 321. 
Phasianidz, 230. 
Pheasants, 230, 235. 
Philacte, No. 249. 
Philadelphian Vireo, 120. 
Philohela, No. 201. 
Philomachus, No. 218. 
Phebe, 172. 
Pheenicopteridz, 277, 351. 
Pheenicopterus, No. 246. 
Phonipara, No. 82bis. 


* Phyllopneuste, No.8. | 


Pica, No. 99. ~ 
Picdviees Nz s 
Picarian ress 17, 347. 


‘ 41, d (footnote), 
Picus, No. 131. > Tie 
Pied’ Duck. 201. ae 
Pied-billed Grebe, 338: fees 
Pigeon Falcon (Hawk), aldo 

Guillemot, 345. 

Hawk, 212. 
Pigeons, 223. 3 
Pike’s Tern, 321. 
aes Woodpecker, 1m. olighy 

ileum, n. Top of hea ae 
Pine Grosbeak, 127. a a 
Linnet (FE) ates 131. 
Warbler, 104. x 
Pine-creepi ing ‘Warbler, 104. ; I, 
Pinicola, No. 55. 
Pinion, n. Part of wing ‘beyond 
carpus, § 55 and § 56. 
Pinnated Grouse, 234. 
Pintado Petrel, 328. 
Pintail, 286. 
Pipilo, No. 85. 
Piping Plover, 244. 
Pipit, 90. 
Piscivorous, a. yi ra 
Plaga, n. Stripe, §41, d 
Plain Titmouse, 80. : ¢ 
Planesticus. Subg. of No.1. 4 
Plantigrade, a. vanes whole fi 
sole ‘of foot, § 73, b 
Platalea, No. 227. 
Plataleine, 264. 
Plec trophanes, No. 63. 
Plotic 1. 
Plotus, No. 276. 
Plov er, 242. * 425 
Plumage, § 9. . . 
Plumbeous Gnatcatcher, 79. ary 
Vireo, 12%, 351. 

Plumed Partridge, 237. 
Plumula, 7. Down-feather, § 5. 
Plumulaceous, a. Of downy 

structure, § 4. 
Pneumatic, @ Permeated with 

ar. 

Pochard, 289. 

Podasocys, No. 192. 

Podiceps, No. 313. 
Podicipidz, 335 

Podilymbus, No. 315. 

Podium, n. Toes, collectivel 68 
Podotheca, n. Coyering 0 foot, 


§ 76. 
Polioptila, No. 10. 
Polioptiline, 78. od 
Polyborus, No. 165. Also p. 208. — 
Polygonal.a. Of more than 3 sides. 
Polymor phic, a. Of many forms. 
Polysticta, No. 266. 
Pomarine Jaéger, 309. P 
Pooecetes, No. 66. oe: 
Poospiza, No. 71. 
ety) phyrio (not Porphyrula), No. 


\eade _ 


Porzana, No. 241. 
Postorbital, a. 

§ 41, b. 
Powder-down feathers, § 6. 
Precoces. Birds that run about 

at birth. 

Precocial, a. Able to run about 
at birth. 
Prairie Hen, 254. 
Warbler, 103. 


Behind the eye, 


Premaxillary. 7. Principal upper 
jaw-bone, S44 

~Pressirostral, a.. § 46. 

Primary. n.; pl. -ies. Quill of 


pinion, § 61. 
Priocella, No. 300. 
Priofinus, No. 309. 
Procellaria, No. 304. 
Procellariid. 324. 
Procellariine, 326. 
Progne, No. 49. 
Prothonotary Warbler, 93. 


Protonotaria, 
Proventriculus,n. Part of gullet 
next to gizzard where are sol- 


No. 32. 


vent naa 
. No. 14. 
Psilorhinus, No. 98. 
Psittaci, 198. 
Preroclidas, 230 


, 230. 
Pteryla, n. Place where feathers 
grow on the skin, § 9." 
lography, nm. Account of 


9. 
Piesyosi, = “Mode of feathering, 


Ptilogonydinz, 116. 
Ptilogonys, 116. - 
Ptilosis,n. Plumage, § 9. 
Ptychorhamphus, No. 323. 
Puflinus, No. 310. 

Puflfinus conradii, 350. 
iam a. Poe pitted. 


Martin, 114. 
Sandpiper, 255. 


"Pygmy Auk = Least Auk, 343. 


Nuthatch, 83. 
eine t 
es ls 
Pygopodous, a. Rump-footed. 
Pygostyle,n. Last tail-bone. 


. No. 43. 
Pyrocephalus. No. 111. 


Pyrriula No. 57. 
Pyrrbuloxia, No. 83. 


Q. 
Qua-bird, 269. 
Qaail, 236. 
Querquedula, No. 257. 


Sescans, n. Set of five, arranged 


@uiveniiies 159. 
Quiscalus, No. 94 


R. 
—— n. Outer bone of forearm, 


Raft Duck, 289. 

Rails, 241, 272. 

Rallidz, -inz, 272. 
Rallus, No. 240. - 
Ramus,7. Branch or fork. 


Ratite, 69 (footnote). 
oe a. Hoarse. 
Ravens, 162 
billed Auk, 339. 
» n.; pl. rectrices. Tail- 
feathers, § 67. 
Recurved, a. Curved ~ esring 
Recurvirostra, No. 196 
Recurvirostridx, 247. 
Red Crossbill, 129. 
Owl, 202. . 
Phalarope, 248. 
Red-and-white-shouldered Black- 
bird, 155 (var. tricolor). 
Red-backed Sandpiper, 256. 
Red-bellied Nuthatch, 83. 
Woodpecker, 196. 
Red-billed Pigeon, 225. 
Redbird, 151. 
Red-breasted Lark, 157. 
Merganser, 296. 
Sandpiper. 256. 
Snipe, 252. 
Teal=Cinnamon T. 
Woodpecker, 195. 
Red-cockaded Woodpecker, 192. 
Reddish Egret, 268. 
Red-eyed Vireo, 119. 
Red-taced Ee emiorauit, 304. 
Red-head, 28 
Red-headed' aditncker, 196. 
Red-legged Kittiwake, 315. 
Red-necked Grebe. 336. 
Red-poll Linnet, 130. 
Red-shafted Woodpecker, 198. 


INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 


Red-shouldered Blackbird, 156 
(var. guberna- 
tor). 

- Buzzard, 216 

Redstart, 110. : 

Red-tailed Buzzard, 2 

Red-throated Diver, 335. 

Red-winged Blackbird, 156. 

Reedbird. 154. 

Reeve, 260. 

Regimen, n. Habit of life. 

Regulinz, 77. 

Regulus, No. 9. 

Remex, n.; pl. remiges. Quills of 

wing, § 57, § 60. 

Reticulation, n. Mosaic, § 78. 

Retrorse, a. Directed backward. 

Rhachis, n. Part of scapus, § 3. 

Rhamphotheca, n. Covering of 

either jaw, § 48, b. 
Rhinotheca, n. Covering of upper 
jaw, § 48, b. 

Rhodostethia, No. 286. 

Rhyacophilus, No. 216. 

Rhynchopine, 323. 

Rhynchops, No. 295. 

Riéebird, 154. 

Richardson’s Falcon, 214. 

Jaéger = Parasitic 


., 309. 
Owl = Tengmalm’s 
O., 205. 
Pewee, 174. 
Rictus, n. Gape. 
Ring Plover, 244. 
Ring-billed Gull, 313. 
Ringneck, 244. 
Ring-necked Duck, 289. 
Ring-tailea Eagle=Golden Eagle. 
Marlin, 258. 
Rio Grande Jay, 166. 
Rissa, No. 284. 
River Ducks, 285. 
Road-runner, 189. 
Robin, 7 
Robin Snipe, 256. 
Rock Ptarmigan, 235. 
Wren, 8. 
Rocky Mountain Garrot, 290. 
Rodger’s Fulmar, 327 
Roseate Spoonbill, 2h. 
Tern, 321. 
Rose-breasted Grosbeak, 148. 
Ross’ Goose, 282. 
Rosy Gull, 316. 
Rostrhamus, No. 152. 
Rostrum, x. Bill, which see. 
Rough-legged Buzzard, 218. 
Rough-winged Swallow, 114. 
Royal Tern, 319. 
Ruby-crowned Kinglet, 78. 
Ruby-throated Hummingbird, 184. 
Ruddy Duck, 295. 
Plover, 257. 
Ruff, 260. 
Ruff,n. Long feathers of gula, § 40. 
Ruffed Grouse, 235. 
Rufous-backed Hummingbird, 185. 
Rufous- gaa Finch, 140. 
Ruga, n.; pl. - Wrinkle. 
Rugous or aenee, a. Wrinkled. 
Rusty Grackle, 159. 
Rusty-crowned Falcon, 214. 


Ss. 


Saddle-back, 312. 

Sage Cock, 233. 

Sagittate, a. Arrowhead-shaped, 
§ 41, d (footnote). 

Salpinctes, No. 19. 

Salt-water Marsh-hen, 273. 

Sand Martin. 114. 

Sanderling, 257. i ie 

Sand-grouse, 230. © 

Sand-hill Crane, 271. 

ap ieee 260. a 
and-pipers, 249, 253-6, 260.: 

Sandwich Tern, 320. ‘he 

Sandy Mockingbird, 75. 

Sapsucker = Yellow-belliedWood- 
pecker, 195. 

Sanrotherinz, 189. 

Savanna Sparrow, 135. 

Saw-bills, 186. 


359 


Saw-whet Owl, 206. 
Saxicola, No.5, 
Saxicolide, 76. 
Sayornis, No. 107. 
Say’s Flycatcher, 172. 
Scabrous, @. Scabby, peuntes §s0. 
Sealed Partridge, 238. 
Scaly Dove, 227. 
Scansores. See 351. 
Scapholunar, x. One of the wrist 
bones, § 55. ; 
Scapula, x. Shoulder-blade. 
Scapulare, n. Region of the shoul- 
der-blade. 
Scapulars, x. Feathers over shoul- 
der-blades, § 38, § G4. 
Scapus, m. Stem of a feather, § 3. 
Scardafella, No. 173. 
Scarious, @. Same as scabrous. 
Soarlet Ibis, 264. 
Tanager, 111. 
Scaup Duck, 289. 
Scissor-tail, 169. 
Schizognathous, a. Having the 
palate bones separate. 
Scolecophagus, No. 93, 
Scolopaceous Courlan, 271. 
Scolopacide, 248. 
Scolopacine Birds, 248. 
Scolopax, No. 202. 
Scops, No. 141. 
Scoters, 293. 
Scott’s Oriole, 159. 
Screech Owl, 202. 
Scrotum, n. Bag holding testi- 
cles, §2. 
Scutellate, a. 
scales, § 77. 
Seutellum, v.; pl. scutella. Scale, 
§77. 
Sea Dove, 343. 
Ducks, 288, 293. 
Parrot, 340. 
Pigeon, 345. 
Swallows, 320. 
Sea-coots, 294. 
Sea-runners, 324 (in text). 
Seashore Sparrow, 136. 
Seaside Finch, 137. 
Secondary, n.; pl. secondaries. 
oul growing on the forearm, 
6: 


Furnished with 


Seiurus, No. 36. 

Selasphorus, No. 122. 

Semi- (in composition). Half. 

Semilunar, a. Crescentic, § 41, d. 

Semipalmate, a. Half w ebbed, §89, 

Semipalmated Sandpiper, 254. 

lover, 244. 
Tattler, 258. 

Semiplume, § 5. 

Septum, n. Partition. 

Serin Finch, 146. 

Serrate, a. Saw-like. 

Setaceous, a. Bristly or bristle- 

like. 

Setophaga, No. 41. 

Setophagine, 108. 

Shag, 302. 

Sharp-shinned Hawk, 212. 

Sharp-tailed Finch, 138. 
Grouse, 234. 

Shore-birds, 239. 

Shore-lark, 89. 

Short-billed Kittiwake, 315. 
Marsh Wren, 88. 

Short-eared Owl, 204. 

Short-tailed Albatross, 325. 
Tenn, 323.” 

Shoveller, 288. 

Shrikes, 124. 

Shufller, 289. 

Sialia, No. 6. 

Siberian Finch, 130. 

Sickle-bill, 262. 

Sickle-billed Thrush, 75. >. 

Sieber’s Jay, 166. 

Sigmoid, @. Shaped likean S. 

Simorhynchus, No. 322. 

Sinciput, n. Forehead. 

Sinuate, a. Wavy. 

Sitta, No. 16. 

Sittidee, 82. 

Skimmers, 323. 

Skua Gulls, 308. 


360 


Slender- billed Fulmar, 327. 
uthatch, 83. 
Shearwater, 332. 
Small-headed Flycatcher, 109. 
Smew, 296. 
Snake-bird, 305. 
Snake-killer, 189. 
Snipe, 248-9, 252. 
Snowbird, 141. 
Snow Bunting, 133. 
Goose, 282. 
Snowflake, 133. 
Snowy Heron, 267. 
Owl, 205. 
Plover, 245. 
Solitary Tattler, 259. 
Vireo, 121. 
Somateria, No. 268. 
Song Sparrow, 139. 
Sooty Albatross, 326. 
Guillemot, 345. 
Shearwater, 331. 
Tern, 322. 
Sora, 273. 
South-southerly, 291. 
Spanish Curlew = White Ibis, 264. 
Sparrow Hawk, 214. 
Sparrows, 127, 155, etc. 
Spatula, No. 258. 
Spatulate, a. Spoon-shaped. 
Species, § 21. 
Spectacled Eider, 292. 
Speculum, . Mirror; bright col- 
ored area on ducks’ wings. 
Spermophila, No. 82. 
Spheniscid, 333 (in text). 
Spheotyto, No. 150. 
Sphyrapicus, No. 133. 
Spinal, a. Pertaining to the back- 
bone. 
Spine-tailed Swifts, 183. 
Spirit Duck, 290. 
Spizella, No. 73. 
Spleen, n. A vascular abdominal 
organ, § 2. 
Spoonbills, 262, 264. 
Spotted Sandpiper, 260. 
Towhee, 152. 
Sprigtail, 286. 
Spruce Partr idge, 232. 
Spurious, a. See § 58 and § 62. 
Squamous, @. Sealy. 
Squatarola, No. 189. 
Squawk, 269. 
Stake-driver, 269. 
Starlings, 153. 
Starncenas, No. 175. 
St. Domingo Duck, 295. 

Grebe, 337. 
Steganopodes, 206. 
Steganopus, No. 198. 
Stelgidopteryx, No. 48. 
Steller’s Eider, 291. 

Jay, 165. 
Stellula, No. 123. 
Stercorarius, No. 280. 
Sterna, No. 291. 
Sternine, 317. 
Sternum, ». Breast-bone. 
Stilt, 247. 
Stilt Sandpiper, 253. 
St. Lucas Sparrow, 136, 352. 
Stone Chat, 76. 
Snipe, 258. 
Storks, 241 (in text). 
Stormy Petrel, 328. 
Stragulum, . Mantle, § 38. 
Stratum, n. Layer. 
Strepsilas, No. 195. 
Strident, @ Shrill. 
Strigide, 200. 
Strix, No. 139. 
Structure, § 14. 
Sturnella, No. 91. 
Sub- (in composition). 
less than; not quite. 
Sub-basal, a. Near the base. 
Sub-class, 7., § 17. 
Sub-typical, a. Between typical 
and aberrant. 
Subulate, a. Awl-shaped. 
Suffrago, x. Heel-joint; tibio-tar- 
sal ae 
Sula, No. 273. 
Sula loxostyla, 349. 


Under; 


INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 


Sulcate, a. Furrowed. 

Sulcus, n. Furrow. 

Sulidze, 298. 

Summer Duck, 288. 

Redbird, 111. 
Warbler, 97. 
Yellowbird, 97. 

Super (in composition). Over, be- 
yond, more than. 

Superciliary, a. Over the eye. 

Supraorbital, a, Over the eye sock- 
ets, § 41, b. 

Surf Bird, 245, 

Duck, 294. 
Surnia, No. 146. 
Swainson’s Buzzard, 217. 
Vireo, 121. 
War bler, 93. 

Swallows, 112. 

Swallow-tailed Flycatcher, 169, 

Gull, 317. 
Kite, 211. 

Swamp Sparrow, 138. 

Swans, 2580. 

Swifts, 182. 

Swimming Birds, 276. 

Sylbeocyclus, No. 314. 

Sylvia, 77. 

Sylvicolidz, 91. 

Sylvicoline, 92. 

Sylviide, 77. 

Sylviine, 77. 

Symphemia, No. 214. 

Symphysis, x. A growing together. 

Syndactylous, § 89. 

Syngnesious, § 89. 

Synthliborhamphus, No. 325. 

Syringeal, a. Pertaining to lower 
larynx. 

Syrinx, m. Lower larynx; the 
vocal organ of birds, situate 
where windpipe forks into bron- 
chi. 

Syrnium, No. 144. 


Abe 


Tachycineta, No. 45. 
Tachypetes, No. 277. 

Tachy Fatiaee, 306. 

Tanagers, 111. 

Tanagride, 111. 

Tantalide, 262. 

Tantaline, 263. 

Tantalus, No. 224. 
Tarso-metarsus, 7., § 72, ¢. 
Tarsus,n. Shank, § 72, e, § 83. 
Tattlers, 251, 258-9. 
Taxonomy, n. Classification, § 12, 


§ 13. 
Tawny Thrush = Wilson’s T., 73 
Teal, 287 
Tectrices, 7. ; pl. 
or tail, § 59, § 66. 
Teeter-tail, 260. 
Tegumentary, § 11. 
Telmatodytes, No. 24. 
Telmatornis affinis, 349. 
priscus, 349. 
Tell-tales. See Tattlers. 
Temminck’s Guillemot, 344. 
Tempora, n.; pl. TED OF, § 41, b. 
Tengmalm’s 8s Owl, 2 
Tennessee War tise, 05. 
Tenuirostral Picariz, 183. 
Tergum, . Lower back, § 38. 
Terns, 317. 
Ter restrial Birds, 228. 
Tertiary, n.; pl. tertiaries. Inner- 
most quills of wings, § 64. 
Tee n. Gland secreting male 
seed 
Tetradactyle, a. 
Tetrao, No. 178. 
Tetraonide, -inz, 232. 
Texas Cardinal, 150. 
Guan, 231. 
Night-hawk, 181. 
Woodpecker, 193. 
Thalasseus, No. 290. 
Thick-billed Guillemot, 346. 
Thistle-bird, 131. 
Thrasher, 75. 
Three-toed Woodpeckers, 194. 


Coverts of wing 


Four-toed. 


Thrushes, 71. 
Thryothorus, No. 21. 
ee n. Larger inner leg-bone, 
Tinamide, 229. 
Tinamous, 229. 
Tinker, 339. 
Tip-up, 260. , 
Titlark, 90. 
Titmice or Tits, 79. 
Tomium, n.; pl. tomia. Cutting 
edge of either mandible, § 49. 

Totanus, No. 215. 
Totipalmate birds, 296. 
Towhee Bunting, 151. 
Townsend’s Bunting, 148. 

Py eaten Thrush, 


Fox Ey dart AE 147, 352. ‘ 

Warbler, 98. 4 

Traill’s Flycatcher, 175. . 
Tree Ducks, 284. : 
Sparrow, 142. ‘ 


Tridactyle, a. hree-toed. 
Tringa, No. 211. 
Tringoides, No. 217. . 
Trochilida, 183; -ine, 184. 
Trochilus, No. ‘AL. 
Troglody tes, No. 22. 
Troglodytide, 84. 
Trogon, No. 125. 
Trogonide, 186. 
Trogons, 186. 
Tropic Bird, 307. 
Trowbridge’s Surf Duck, 295, 
Trudeaw’s Tern, 322. 
Trumpeter Swan, 281. 
Truncate, a. Cut squarely off. 
Truncus, x. Body without its 

members, § 33. 
Tryngites, No. 220. 
Tufted Pape 80. 

flin, 340. 

Turdide, iL. 
Turdinae, 71. 
Turdus, No. 1. 
Turkey, 231. 
arkert Buzzard, 222. 
Turnicide, 229, 
Turnstone, 246. 
T chee n. pl. Pads under the toes, 


Tspic al, § 24. 
Tyrannide, 167. 
Tyrannine, 168. 
Tyrannus, No. 105. 
Tyrants, 167-8. 


We 


Uintornis lucaris, 347. 

Ulna, n. A bone of the forearm. 

Ultramarine Jay (Aphelocoma ul- 
tramarina), 165. 

Umbilicus, n. Pit, § 3. 

Under par ts, § 36. 

Unguiculate, a. Clawed. i 

Upk: ind Plover, 260. 

Upper parle § 36. 

Uria, No. 327 

Uropygium, n. Rump, § 38. 

Utamania, No. 317. 


Wie 


Valley Quail, 238. 

Vane, n. Web of a feather, § 3. 

Varied Thrush, 72. 

Variety, § 22. 

Vascular, a. Having many small 
bloodvessels, § 2. 

Vaux’s Swift, 183, 352. 

Veery, 73. 

Velvet Scoter, 294. 

Venter, n. Belly 7, § 39. 

Ventral. a. Partiuininig 60 the belly. 

Vermiculation, n. Very fine cross- 
wise marking, § 41, d (footnote). 

Vermilion Flycatcher, 177. 

Versatile, n. Capable of turning 
either way. 

Vertebrate, a.or n. Backboned 
animal. 


Vertex, n. Middle of pileum,§4l,a. 
Vexillum, n. Web or vane of a 
Hoare 50 t, 30k 
n Cormoran K 
‘i Swallow, 113. — 
Vireo, No.53. —- 
Vireonide, 117. 
Virgin fa Nightingale, 151 
a Nightingale, 151. 
Partridge, 235. 
Rail, 273. 
Virginia’s Warbler, 94. 
Vitta, n. Broad band of color, 


d. 
Vomer, n. A skull bone; last tail 
Vultures, 220, 


90. 
’ ] 
Wandering Albatross, 325. 
~ Shearwater, 331. 
Tattler, 261. 
Warblers, 77, 91, 92 to 109. 
Warbling Vireo, 120. 
Washington Eagle = Bald Eagle. 
Water Ouzel, 77. 
Thrush, 106. 
Turkey, 305 
Wag-tail, 106. 
Water-witch, 338. 
Waxwings, 115. 
Wedge-tailed Gull, 316. 
Petrel, 328. 
Western Barred Owl, 204. 
Bluebird, 76. 


Meadow Lark, 157. 
Nonpareil, 149. 
Titmouse, 81. 
Warbler, 97. 
Warbling Vireo, 121. 
Wood Pewee, 174. 
Wheatear, 76. 
Whippoorwill. 180. 
Whiptomkelly, 120. 
Whiskered Auk, 342. 
Whiskey-jack, 166. 
Whistle-wing = Golden-eve. 
Whistling Field Plover, 243. 
Swan, 281. 


i” 


INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 


White Crane, 271. 
Curlew = White Ibis. 
Grouse = Ptarmigan. 
Heron, 267. 
Ibis, 264. 
Nun, 296. 
Owl = Snowy Owl. 
White-bellied Nuthatch, 82. 
Petrel, 330. ‘ 
Swallow, 113. 
White-crowned Pigeon, 225. 
Sparrow, 144. 
White-eyed Vireo, 122. 
White-fronted Goose, 282. 
White-headed Eagle, 219. 
Gull, 314. 
Woodpecker, 192. 
White-necked Raven, 162. 
White-rumped Sandpiper, 255. 
Shrike, 125. 
White-tailed Godwit, 258. 
Kite, 211. 
Ptarmigan, 236. 
White-throated Sparrow, 144. 
Swift, 182. 
Wren, 85. 
White-tufted Cormorant, 302. 
White-winged Blackbird, 147. 
Crossbill, 129. 
Dove, 226. 
Gull, 311. 
Surf Duck, 294. 
Whitney’s Owl, 207. 
Whooping Crane, 271. 
Widgeons, 286-7. 
Wild Goose, 284. 
Pigeon, 225. 
Turkey, 231. 
Willet, 258. 
Williamson’s Woodpecker, 195. 
Willow Ptarmigan, 235. 
Wilson’s Petrel, 329. 
Phalarope, 248. 
Plover, 244. 
Snipe, 252. 
Tern, 320. 
Thrush, 73. 
Winter Falcon, 216 (in text). 
Wren, 87. 
Wood Duck, 288. 
Ibis, 263. 
Pewee, 173. 
Thrush, 72. 
Wren = House Wren. 


361 


Woodcock, 249, 251, 252. 
Woodhouse’s Jay, 166. 
Woodpeckers, 190. 
Worm-eating Warbler, 93. 
Wren-tits, 79. 

Wrens, 84. 

Wright’s Flycatcher, 176. 


o.& 


Xanthocephalus, No. 90. 
Xanthoura, No. 102. 
Xantus Hummingbird, 184. 
Xema, No. 287. 


We 


Yellow Rail, 274. 
Red-poll Warbler, 104. 
Wagtail, 90. 
Warbler, 97. 
Yellow-bellied Flycatcher, 175. 
Woodpecker, 195. 
Yellow-billed Cuckoo, 190. 
Loon, 334. 
Magpie, 164. 
Yellowbird, 131. 
Yellow-breasted Chat, 108. 
Yellow-crowned Night Heron, 269 
Warbler, 99. 
Yellow-faced Woodpecker, 196. 
Yellow-headed Blackbird, 156. 
Titmouse, 82. 
Yellow-nosed Albatross, 325 (in 
text). 
Yellow-rumped Warbler, 99. 
Yellow-shatted Woodpecker = 
Flicker, 197. 
Yellowshanks, 259. 
Yellow-throat, 107. 
Yellow-throated Vireo, 121. 
Warbler, 103. 
Yellow-winged Sparrow, 137. 
Yucker = Flicker, 197. 


Z. 


Zenda, No. 170. 

Zenzdura, No. 169. 

Zenaida Dove, 226. 

Zonotrichia, No. 74. 

Zygodactyle, a. Yoke-toed, § 84. 

Zygoma,. Malar bone and its 
connections. 


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